Author 



*.-<*o> 




| LB 3218 
N7 05 
1917 
I Copy 1 



Title 



Imprint 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 



LAW, RULES, REGULATIONS AND GENERAL 
INFORMATION 



Extract from volume J of the tenth annual report of the State 
Department of Education 



ALBANY 

THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

1917 



THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Regents of the University 

With years when terms expire 

(Revised to April 1, 1917) 

1926 Pliny T. Sexton LL.B. LL.D. Chancellor - - - Palmyra 

1927 Albert Vander Veer M.D. M.A. Ph.D. LL.D. 

Vice Chancellor Albany 

1922 Chester S. Lord M.A. LL.D. ----- Brooklyn 

1918 William Nottingham M.A. Ph.D. LL.D - - - Syracuse 
1921 Francis M. Carpenter Mount Kisco 

1923 Abram I. Elkus LL.B. D.C.L. ----- New York 

1924 Adelbert Moot LL.D. ------ Buffalo 

1925 Charles B. Alexander M.A. LL.B. LL.D. Litt.D. - Tuxedo 

1919 John Moore -------- Elmira 

1928 Walter Guest Kellogg B.A. - - - - - Ogdensburg 

1929 William Berri - - - - - - - Brooklyn 

1920 James Byrne B.A. LL.B. New York 

President of the University and Commissioner of Education 

John H. Finley M.A. LL.D. L.H.D. 

Deputy Commissioner and Assistant Commissioner for Elementary Education 

Thomas E. Finegan M.A. Pd.D. LL.D. 

Assistant Commissioner for Higher Education 

Augustus S. Downing M.A. L.H.D. LL.D. 

Assistant Commissioner for Secondary Education 

Charles F. Wheelock B.S. LL.D. 

Director of State Library 

James I. Wyer, Jr, M.L.S. 

Director of Science and State Museum 

John M. Clarke Ph.D. D.Sc. LL.D. 

Chiefs and Directors of Divisions 

Administration, George M. Wiley M.A. 

Agricultural and Industrial Education, Arthur D. Dean D.Sc, Director 

Archives and History, James Sullivan M.A. Ph.D., Director 

Attendance, James D. Sullivan 

Educational Extension, William R. Watson B.S. 

Examinations and Inspections, Harlan H. Horner M.A., Director 

Law, Frank B. Gilbert B.A., Counsel for the University 

Library School, Frank K. Walter, M.A. M.L.S. 

School Buildings and Grounds, Frank H. Wood M.A. 

School Libraries, Sherman Williams Pd.D. 

Statistics, Hiram C. Case 

Visual Instruction, Alfred W. Abrams Ph.B. 



' 



The University of the State of New York 
The State Department of Education 

Building! and Grounds l> 



SCHOOL BUILDINOS AND O ROUNDS 



I UV. kl LIS, REG1 LATIONS AM) GENERAL 
INFORMATION 



Extract from volume J of thf truth annual report of the State 
ntment of Education 



% V 



D, Of D. 

MAY \7 1917 



r 7 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROl XDS 



SCHOOL BUILDING \CT 

ions );i and 4^2 of the Education Law ;is amended In chaptei [40 ol the 
Laws 11I iwi 

Section 451 Plans and specifications of school buildings must be 
approved by Commissioner of Education. 1 No schoolhouse shall here- 
after be erected, repaired, enlarged or remodeled in a city of the third class 
or in a school district, at an expense which shall exceed #500, until the 
plans and specifications thereof shall have been submitted to the Com- 
missioner <it' Education and his approval indorsed thereon. Such plans 
and specifications shall show in detail the ventilation, heating and lighting 
of such buildings. 

2 The Commissioner of Education shall not approve the plans for 
the erection of any school building or addition thereto or remodeling thereof 
unless the same shall provide 

a At least 15 square feet of floor space and 200 cubic feet of air space 
for each pupil to be accommodated in each study room or recitation room 
therein. 

b For assuring at least 30 cubic feet of pure air every minute per pupil. 

c The facilities for exhausting the foul or vitiated air therein shall be 
positive and independent of atmospheric changes. 

3 No tax voted by a district meeting or other competent authority 
in any such city or school district exceeding the sum of #500 shall be levied 
by the trustees until the Commissioner of Education shall certify that 
the plans and specifications for the same comply with the provisions of 
this section. 

452 Halls, doors, stairways, staircases etc. 1 All schoolhouses for 
which plans and detailed statements shall be filed and approved, as required 
by the preceding section, shall have all halls, doors, stairways, seats, pas- 
sageways and aisles and all lighting and heating appliances and apparatus 
arranged to facilitate egress and afford adequate protection in cases of fire 
or accident. 



IO THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

2 All exit doors shall open outwardly, and shall, if double doors be 
used, be fastened with movable bolts operated simultaneously by one 
handle from the inner face of the door. 

3 No staircase shall be constructed with winder steps in lieu of a 
platform but shall be constructed with straight runs, changes in direction 
being made by platforms. No door shall open immediately upon a flight 
of stairs, but a landing at least the width of the door shall be provided 
between such stairs and such doorway. 



SUMMARY OF REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE APPROVAL 

01 PLANS 

Submission of Plans 

i I he plans ami specifications must be submitted in duplicate. After 
approval by the Commissioner of Education, one set, officially indorsed, 
will be sent to the local trustee or board of education; the other set will 
be filed in the Education Department. The set returned is the property 
ol the district, and in a union free school district should be filed with the 
clerk ol the hoard ol education; in a common school district, with the 
disti ict clerk. 

2 The plans must he submitted on paper not more than 36 inches 
wide and must show in detail the ventilation, heating, lighting and plumbing. 

3 The size of the rooms (length, breadth and height) and the number 
ot individual desks to be placed in the rooms must be indicated. 

4 Prior to approval the following schedule of items must be supplied: 
a The name of the town and the number of the district, or the name 

ot the city, the name and address of the trustee, or in a union free school 
district, of the clerk of the board of education. 

/' \n official statement showing that an appropriation for the con- 
struction of the building has been voted by the district or authorized by 
the municipality, and that the plans have been adopted for use by the 
trustee or board of education. 

1 \ map of the site showing its shape and size, the contour of the sur- 
face ot the ground, and the location of trees or other buildings thereon and 
ot any adjacent buildings on adjoining properties, together with a block 
plan of the proposed new building in its proper relative position. 

d Number of cubic feet in the building 1 ; estimated cost per cubic 
toot; total number of pupils building will accommodate; amount of 
appropriation. 



1 I he number of cubic feet of contents must he computed from the lowest level or levels of the finished floor 
(whether first floor, basement or cellar) t<> the average height of the roof, calculated from eaves to topmost point, 
including cubic contents of .ill such substantial projections as bays, porches, chimneys, towers and cupolas, but 
not including ornamental work such as cornices or pilasters or bulkheads or tank inclosures. 

Where unusual conditions are encountered, in constructing foundations, such as rock excavation, piling or 
unusual grade conditions) the cost thereof should be estimated separately. 



12 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

5 It shall be the duty of architects to see that the terms of the general 
contract and of all supplementary contracts are so drawn as to protect 
the district from any additional expenditures by reason of changes in the 
plans and specifications that any contractors or subcontractors may make 
on their own initiative, or that may become necessary to carry out effect- 
ively the plans and specifications as originally approved and adopted. 

6 Specifications must not limit the district to the purchase of products 
of any particular manufacturer to the exclusion of products of like quality 
of other manufacturers. 

7 After the contracts are duly signed, it shall be the duty of the archi- 
tect to report to the Commissioner of Education the name or names of the 
successful bidders and the amount or amounts for which the contracts 
have been let; also to furnish a list of all the bidders together with the 
amounts of their respective bids. 

8 Upon the completion of the building, prior to the presentation of 
his requisition to the local board of education or trustee for final payment 
for services rendered, the architect shall report to the Commissioner of 
Education the following facts: (a) date of completion of building; (b) total 
cost of building exclusive of site and furniture; (c) cost per cubic foot; 
(d) cost per pupil accommodated; (e) cost of site; (f) cost of furniture. 

9 Where it is necessary to provide special means for the disposal of 
sewage, the plans therefor must be submitted for approval to the State 
Department of Health. 

Fire Protection 

i The unique value of fireproof construction for school buildings is 
universally conceded and such construction is especially desirable in large 
buildings where many pupils are assembled. Where conditions render it 
impossible or impracticable to use fireproof construction throughout, it is 
particularly desirable to have all walls, both inclosing and interior, of incom- 
bustible material, and to make the furnace room, the first floor and the 
stairways fireproof. Frame construction with inclosing walls of com- 
bustible material can not be approved except in rural districts and in small 
village districts of comparatively low valuation. 

2 The plans and specifications must clearly show that proper pro- 
vision is made in all respects " to facilitate egress and to afford adequate 
protection in cases of fire or accident." 

3 The statute requires that all exit doors (that is, outside doors) shall 
open outwardly. This statement is not construed as applying to doors 



SCH001 BUILDINGS VND GROI 1 3 

into classrooms and recitation rooms, w lii( h frequently should open inward 
to prevent interference and blocking of corridors and hallways, but all 
doors opening into rooms where pupils assemble in misses, such as audi- 
toriums, general assembly moms and gymnasiums, should open outward 
unless double swinging. 

1 Exit doors, if double, musl be fastened with antipanic holts. 

Lighting 

i Ml classrooms and study rooms shall be Lighted from one side only, 
the pupils' [eft, unless special conditions, such as width of room, render 
it impossible or inadvisable; in such event supplemental light may he 
admitted from the rear, hut no window should he placed in the rear directh 
Opposite the teacher's desk. 

2 The windows must he grouped together as nearly as possible on the 
pupils' hit so that the light may be massed, thereby insuring a compara- 
ti\el\ even distribution of it on all study desks. Any considerable area 
on this side without window surface should he at either extremity of it. 

3 The ratio of window surface to floor surface must be at least one 
to live. If the main light comes from the north or from a side of the build- 
ing which is much shaded, the ratio should he one to four. 

In the remodeling of old buildings some allowance is permissible for 
the use of prism idass in the upper sash if other conditions are favorable. 

4 In all class, study and recitation rooms the windows must have 
square heads and no transoms or unnecessary framework. 

5 Small panes of glass are not permissible except where narrow metal 
mullions are used. 

b Sidewalls and ceilings must be finished in colors that will reflect 
light well. Light gray-green, if not overdone, or light drab is recommended 
as a wall color for southern exposure and light cream or buff for northern 
exposure. The dado should be a darker tone of the wall color. The ceiling 
should be a flat white very slightly modified by the wall color. 1 

7 Shades for controlling the light must be translucent. The color 
and material used in the shades should be such as to admit the maximum 
amount of light without producing a glare. 

The following methods of fastening shades are approved: 

a Two overlapping shades fastened in the middle of the window, one 
to draw up, the other down. 

b A single shade with patent movable or adjustable fixtures. 

1 See also page {I, Schoolroom Decoration. 



14 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Heat, Ventilation and Humidity 

i The specifications must contain a statement requiring the engineer, 
architect or heating contractor, as the case may be, to guarantee that the 
system of heating and ventilation described will heat all rooms used for 
study and recitation and also all rooms used for coats and wraps to a tem- 
perature of 70 degrees in zero weather, without undue pressure on the 
appliances involved, will provide a supply of at least 30 cubic feet of fresh 
air every minute for each pupil to be accommodated in each study room 
or classroom, and will maintain the humidity of each study room and class- 
room at not less than 35 per cent. 

2 One-room school buildings may be heated and ventilated by an 
approved room heater. In buildings of larger size a cellar, basement or 
separate building must be provided for the furnace or boiler. 

3 A gravity system of ventilation is permissible only in rural and in 
small village schools. 

4 The heat and vent flues should be of sufficient capacity to furnish 
the required amount of heated air at a velocity not in excess of 300 feet 
a minute for gravity systems and 400 feet a minute for fan systems. To 
insure this result in gravity systems, these openings must have a minimum 
cross section area of from two-thirds of an inch to 1 inch for every square 
foot of floor area according to conditions, such as number of floor and 
exposure. 

The fan should be of ample capacity to supply the required amount 
of air at normal velocity without running it at a rate that will either cause 
an annoying noise or produce undue wear. 

5 Heat flues must admit air to all classrooms, recitation rooms and 
study halls at least 8 feet above floor level. Ventiducts placed on the same 
side as the heat flues must remove foul air from schoolrooms at floor level. 

6 The attic must not be used either as a repository or as a gathering 
chamber for foul air. Vent flues must empty into the open air above the 
highest point of the roof. 

7 Wherever practicable, the supply of pure air must be taken into the 
building at least 10 feet above the grade line. 

8 In all rooms used for study, recitation and general assembly, the 
amount of air supplied should be somewhat in excess of the amount of air 
exhausted in a unit of time. In all toilet rooms, rooms used for domestic 
science or for physical and chemical laboratories, the amount of foul air 
exhausted should be somewhat in excess of the amount of air supplied in 
a unit of time. The hoods in chemical laboratories must have a separate 



s( IHMH Bl II DIN'. s Wl> '.KOI ND8 15 

.mil positive exhaust ventilating system. Toilel ventilatio 1st be sepa- 
rate .ind distinct From the ventilation of study, class and recitation rooms. 

9 When- wire mesh grills with nol over a one-eighth inch wire and 
1'. In j inch mesh are used, the area ol the opening shall be of such size 
that tin- velocitj ol the ail through it shall nor exceed 300 feet a minute 
measured ovei the gross area of the opening. Where registers or register 
faces are used, the area of the opening shall be 25 per cent greater than that 
1 equired li >r wire mesh grills. 

10 Fresh air or vent openings may be used without registers it finished 
in keeping with the rooms. 

11 Registers and thermostats ought not to he placed so as to break 

up spates suitable for hanging pictures or be set in blackboards. 

ii \n amount of direct radiation sufficient to supplement the indirect 
radiation in extreme winter weather is advisable; but there must he ample 
indirect radiation to supply required air at all times. 'Idle direct radiation 
should he used only in cold weather. 

Miscellaneous 

1 In classrooms and study rooms, the aisles must run the long way 
ol the room. When there is only one entrance door, it should be located 
in the end near the teacher's desk. 

1 The use of platforms can not be approved except in large study halls. 

3 In the construction of stairways, the risers should be not more than 
(' inches in elementary and 7 inches in secondary schools, and the treads 
not less than 10 inches in the former and 11 inches in the latter. The 
stairways should be sufficiently broad to insure the ready passage of all 
pupils who may have occasion to use them at any time. 

4 In the primary grades, the blackboards should be placed approxi- 
mately 24 to 26 inches from the floor; in the intermediate grades 28 to 30 
inches; in the grammar grades 32 to 34 inches, and in the high school 36 
to 38 inches. Each blackboard should be provided with a trough at the 
bottom, which should have an open woven wire cover on hinges. 

5 \mple cloakrooms should be provided. These should be thoroughly 
heated and ventilated. A minimum allowance of 8 running inches to each 
pupil should be made. In primary schools the hooks should be placed 
from 3' to 4 feet above the floor, in other schools from 4 to 5§ feet. 

(> When pupils have access to a basement during school hours for 
toilet purposes only, there must be a stairway for each sex. 

7 Uncovered cement floors are not approved except for corridors and 
special rooms, such as toilets, laboratories and shop rooms. 



l6 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

8 Plans lor buildings of eight or more rooms should provide either 
for a general assembly room or an auditorium. Plans for buildings of less 
than eight rooms should have a room or two or more connecting rooms 
suitable for the accommodation of all pupils in general assembly. 

9 All plans must show adequate facilities for carrying out all the 
provisions of the physical training act and the rules and regulations of the 
Board of Regents pursuant thereto. 

10 All plans must provide for adequate sanitary toilet facilities. On 
or before September i, 191 8, provision must be made for sanitary toilets 
in all old buildings where not already provided, and plans therefor must 
be submitted for approval. 

11 In designing plans, adequate provision should be made for future 
growth and development, both for increase in registration and for the 
adoption of special lines of work that may prove desirable. 

The following chapters are intended for the general information and 
guidance of architects, trustees and boards of education together with all 
those who are charged with the responsible duties of teaching and super- 
vision; and it is hoped that they may point the way to helpful means and 
methods for improving the buildings and grounds of our public schools and 
for surrounding the children attending them with comfortable and sanitary 
accommodations and uplifting and refining environment. 



3 
PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 

Initial Steps by School Boards 

Trustees and boards of education are primarily responsible for the 
proper housing of pupils under their jurisdiction. If the school building 
is temporarily congested, it is their duty to rent suitable rooms and fit 
them up for use. If the congestion, however, is not temporary, or it the 
building in use is unsuitable for school purposes, it is then the dut> oi 
these loeal officials to take the necessarj preliminary Steps to secure the 
enlargement of the old building ' or the construction of a new one. In case 
of doubl as to which of these two courses to pursue, advice should be sought 
through the State Department of Education. 

When confronted with the necessity of building, the trustee or board 
of education should adopt every reasonable and necessary means to apprize 
the residents of the district that better accommodations must be pro- 
vided, with the reasons therefor. Meanwhile they should inform them- 
selves as well as may be as to the precise kind of structure that will best 
meet their needs. They should examine the plans of new buildings in other 
places of like size and conditions and inspect some of these buildings. 
Many find it profitable to visit the Department to examine plans and to 
consult regarding points of difficulty or uncertainty. It will be a pleasure 
to welcome all who may come and to give all possible assistance. 

The next step is to engage a competent architect, describe the kind 
of building that is wanted, and instruct him to prepare sketches and esti- 
mates of cost. With this done and the general public in readiness through 
a persistent campaign of education, tactfully and intelligently conducted, 
a call should he issued for a special meeting of the district to vote the neces- 
sarj appropriation. A form of call, and of resolutions to be ottered at this 
meeting, together with the qualifications of voters, will be found in the 
appendix, further information on the issuance of bonds and procedure 
at special meetings will be found in Law Pamphlets i and 2, issued by the 
State Department of Education, copies of which will be supplied upon 
application. 






lo THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Choice of Architect 
It is ordinarily not desirable to select an architect by means of a com- 
petition except in the case of a building sufficiently expensive to warrant 
the hiring of an architect to outline the terms of the competition and super- 
vise its conduct. An untrained school board will ordinarily secure the 
best results by selecting an architect of known experience and probity who 
has constructed buildings of the sort they wish under conditions about 
the same as they have to encounter. Architects submitting sketches in 
competition naturally desire their work to be as attractive as possible. 
Consequently, it is more likely than not that the sketch chosen as the most 
desirable represents a building that will cost more than the sum appropri- 
ated, or will have to be materially altered and in the end be perhaps less 
desirable than other buildings pictured originally with less pretension. 
A symmetrically designed building originally planned to come within a 
certain sum is sure to be more attractive and serviceable than one planned 
on larger, more expensive lines, and then altered so as to reduce the cost 
of construction. 

Location of Building 

Great care must be taken to select a school site removed from objec- 
tionable noises, polluted air, or other sources of physical or moral con- 
tamination. Made land, wet land and land impregnated with organic 
matter should be avoided. High land removed from manufactories, 
stables, dumps, swampy places and other objectionable surroundings 
should be diligently sought. Consideration should be given to the ques- 
tion of the geographical center of the district, the center of population 
and ease of access. This is more important in elementary than in high 
schools. The building should not be so near neighboring buildings or trees 
as to have the light obstructed; it is generally accepted that -the distance 
of the school building from the obstructing buildings or trees ought not 
to be less than twice their height. 

Orientation of Buildings 

Buildings should be so located that all rooms used continuously for 
study, and so far as may be those used for recitation, will receive direct 
sunlight during some part of the day. Rooms for drawing, laboratories, 
domestic science, manual training and other similar lines of special work 
may if necessary be lighted from the north. Light from the east is more 
desirable than from the west. Light from the south as well as from the 
north should be avoided so far as possible in classrooms, study rooms and 



SI uooi B1 ILDINGS \M> GROUNDS I'y 

recitation rooms. To secure these results, therefore, it is desirable to have 
the long axis of the building extend north and south 01 .it as small angle 
,is possible with the north and south line. 

Determining Factors in Construction 

The determining factors in size, style and material oi ,i school building 
are the site, the appropriation, the number of pupils to be accommodated, 
and the character pf the work to he- done. It is advisable and economical 
in the end to use the best materials available, and whenever it is pos- 
sible fireproof construction should by all means be adopted. If fire- 
proof construction can not be used throughout, it should be employed in 
the more essential parts, particularly the basement, corridors and the 
stairways. 

In constructing a new building, liberal provision should be made for 
future growth. Frequently a new building is taxed to its fullest capacity 
within a year or two after its completion. Account should be taken of the 
lac t that a new building in itself conduces in a marked degree to an increase 
in attendance, especially in high schools. In the preparation of plans, due 
attention should also be given to the possibilities of enlargement. 

Cost of Construction 

The costs of buildings of the same type, size and capacity will vary 
widely by reason of the difference in cost of material and labor in different 
sections of the State and in different years or at different periods of the 
same year. It is estimated that the cost of building during the current 
year (1916) is approximately twenty per cent more than it was a year ago. 
In general, the cost is commonly greater in cities than in village and rural 
districts; greater in the northeastern than in the southwestern counties, 
and greatest of all in the Long Island and lower Hudson counties. 

Height of Buildings 

A two-room building should be of one story; a building of more than 
two classrooms may be of more than one story. The height ot school 
buildings should, as far as possible, be restricted to two stories above the 
basement. 

Ground Floor (basement) 

The basement should be of good height, a minimum of 12 feet if pos- 
sible, and should be thoroughly drained. The walls and floor should be 



20 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

thoroughly waterproofed. It should contain ample room for heating appa- 
ratus and be sufficiently above ground to be well lighted, and as occasion 
requires, to afford space for toilets, lavatories, baths, playrooms, manual 
training rooms, domestic science rooms, laboratories and shop rooms. 

Attractive Appearance 

It is particularly important that a school building should present an 
attractive appearance. Great care should therefore be exercised in making 
the exterior lines such as to insure a pleasing effect without undue increase 
in the cost of construction. Some inexpensive features, a little touch of 
the artist's hand here and there will often transform the entire exterior 
effect; but tawdry ornamentation and multiplicity of angles, projections 
and towers should be avoided. 

Size and Arrangement of Classrooms 

In the construction of a school building the classroom or grade room 
is the unit. The recitation room and the study hall are to be regarded as 
variations of it differing from it for the most part only in dimensions. In 
planning a schoolhouse, the architect's chief problem is to get a specified 
number of these normal units together in the most effective and economical 
manner and have the accessory rooms, coat rooms, corridors, toilet rooms 
and auditorium so grouped in relation to them as to yield best results. 
Special attention, therefore, needs to be given to the features that should 
characterize the typical classroom. Efficiency and economy are best 
secured when the dimensions are approximately 30 by 24 feet and the 
max'mum seating capacity about 50; but it should be rarely necessary to 
place so many under a single teacher even with most favorable conditions. 
When several grades occupy the same room, the number should never 
exceed 45. Department rulings permit but 40 in a single room of a rural 
school. 

Rows of seats should run the long way of the room. The considera- 
tions determining this fact, and also deciding the approximate dimensions 
given, are (1) that the rectangular room has less waste space in front, 
(2) that if the room is more than 26 feet wide some pupils at the sides are 
out of range of the teacher's vision, (3) that the blackboard arrangements 
are more satisfactory, (4) that light should come from the pupil's left, and 
the farthest row of seats should be distant from the windows not more 
than twice the height of the windows, and (5) that in general such size and 
arrangement is better for discipline and administration. On the other hand, 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS WD GROUNDS 21 

it should be remembered thai in .1 room longer than 30 feet, it is difficult 
Ini the teacher to be heard and lor pupils .it the rear to see the front hoard. 
There should be a wide aisle <>n the long side opposite the windows or the 
blackboard side oi the room, the inside aisles being of an equal width ol 
from 10 to z\ inches according to the size of the desks and the age of the 
pupils. No matter how small the desks used, the number in a room should 
not he increased. This arrangement provides needed free floor space in 
primarj rooms for the motor activities of the children. The normal height 
of the room, 13', feet, is determined by dividing the air space per pupil, 
as required by statute 200 cubic feet, by the required floor space per pupil, 
[5 square leer. It should be noted that this statutory requirement sets 
a minimum stand. ml, and that increased floor and air space, say 20 square 
feel and 260 cubic feet, are desirable. 

Types of High School Arrangement 

There are today three common types of construction for high school 
buildings. The general plan of one of these types of buildings consists 
essentially of one or more large assembly rooms, primarily designed for 
study purposes and containing seats for all pupils enrolled in the school, 
and of a number of small rooms commonly seated with benches (not desks) 
and adapted for use for recitations only. 

Another type of building is composed principally of a number of com- 
bined recitation and study rooms among which pupils pass to and fro for 
recitations. In these combined recitation and study rooms, pupils will be 
found studying in the rear of the room while a class is reciting in the front. 
Such rooms are commonly known as the " home rooms " of the pupils 
who study. there. 

A third type, which is meeting much favor, is substantially a com- 
bination of the other two, and consists of one or more study rooms of mod- 
erate size, which on emergency may be also used for recitations, seated 
to accommodate all pupils who may be scheduled for study at any period 
of the day. Instead of a seat for every pupil enrolled in the school, there 
is approximately one for every three pupils. 

In the first type, only about one-third of the seats of the study hall 
are occupied during recitations; hence the outlay for original construc- 
tion and the annual cost of maintenance are materially greater than in 
other types. The special advantage is that every pupil has the same desk 
for study throughout the day. 

The disadvantages of the second type are two: first, teachers are 
required to take charge of a class and at the same time to supervise those 



22 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

who are studying in the room; and second, pupils throughout the day are 
obliged to study in rooms where classes are reciting. The advantages are 
economy in space and economy in teaching force. 

The third type necessitates a definite assignment of seats for every 
period of the day and suitable provision for the books and working material 
of pupils. This is, however, merely a matter of administration which is 
readily met. It obviates the objections urged against the other types at 
a cost part way between the two. The first type sacrifices efficiency in the 
use of room; the second sacrifices efficiency in results; the third is intended 
to meet both of these difficulties at a minimum cost. 

Seats and Desks 

It is of vital importance that a suitable number of adjustable seats and 
desks be provided to accommodate pupils of abnormal size. A row of 
these to a classroom proves very satisfactory in number and arrangement. 
The seats should be of such size that each pupil may be comfortably seated 
with feet resting directly on the floor, and with the desk in such proximity 
that the pupil will readily and naturally assume an upright position when 
either reading or writing. Single or individual desks or chairs should 
always be used. In ordinary classrooms there should be no platform. 



4 
FIRE PROTECTION 

Too much (. m ii m>t be said about the extreme importance oi taking 
everj possible precaution against fire. It it is at all possible, fireproof 
construction should be used throughout. When tins can not he done, such 
construction should certainly be employed in the more essential parts ol 
the building, particularly the basement, corridors and stairways. \t the 
verj least, the entire sides and ceiling of the boiler or furnace room should 
be plastered on metallic lath. The boiler room may well he outside the main 
building, either in a separate structure, or in a wing or an extension ot the 
basement. Such an arrangement deereases the fire risk, economizes room 
usable for school purposes, and removes dirt and dust from the school 
building proper. According to the estimates of several prominent archi- 
tects, approximately semifireproof construction increases the cost ot a school 
building from 8 to zz per cent and absolutely fireproof construction from 
i z to 35 per cent; but Department records and publications show that in 
recent years several fireproof school buildings have heen constructed at 
.i cost ot i ; cents per cubic toot or less. 

It is ot extreme importance that all waste, sweepings and paper, if 
kept in the building even for 24 hours, he placed in metal ash cans and kept 
in a fireproof room. To prevent distribution of burning particles by the 
wind, a wire cage may he used for the disposal of paper and other waste. 
Attention should be given to proper protection of hot-air and smoke flues; 
chimneys should have tile linings for smoke flues, and no wooden flues ol 
any description should be used in the heating or ventilating systems. 

Fire Alarms 

In all school buildings of more than one story or housing more than 
100 pupils, an approved fire alarm system must be provided. This is 
essential to the proper execution of the provisions of article 2S of the 
Education law , requiring the maintenance of Are drills. It is recommended 
that three separate rings of three strokes each (3-3-3) be known and used 
throughout the State as the school fire alarm. 

*3 



24 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Fire Extinguishers 

Standpipes with proper hose and easily turned valves and chemical 
hand extinguishers are of great value if located on all floors. In non- 
fireproof buildings, especially those of two or more stories, automatic 
sprinklers in the basement, in laboratories, shops and domestic science 
rooms, highly recommended by competent authorities, are coming into 
prominent use in school buildings. 

Requirements 

Special statutes require that (i) all buildings if of more than two 
stories, except in New York City, must have suitable outside stairways, 
not ladders; (2) fire drills shall be held at least once a month; (3) all exit 
doors shall open outwardly, and the bolts of double doors shall be arranged 
to be drawn at one motion; (4) no winding stairs shall be employed and no 
doors open directly on staircases; (5) in general, the school building and 
everything in it shall be arranged with a view to preventing fire and 
facilitating egress in case of fire. 

School boards may well go beyond the requirements of the law in the 
direction of safety. If other safeguards are essential to the proper pro- 
tection of the lives of the children, prompt measures should be instituted 
to provide them. It would be infinitely better to show an excess of caution 
and to spend more money than need be than to incur the possibility of 
afflictions such as have occurred. 

Fire Escape Act 

(Education Law, section 453) 

Fire escapes, i All school buildings in the State, except in the city of 
New York, which are more than two stories high, shall have properly 
constructed stairways on the outside thereof, with suitable doorways 
leading thereto, from each story above the first, for use in case of fire. Such 
stairways shall be kept in good order and free from obstruction, and shall 
not be bolted or locked during school hours. 

2 It shall be the duty of the trustee or board of education having 
charge of said school buildings to cause such stairways to be constructed 
and maintained, and the reasonable and proper cost thereof shall in each 
case be a legal charge upon the district or city, and shall be raised by tax, 
as other moneys are raised for school purposes. 



si HOOL Bl ILDINGS \M> GROI NDfl 25 

Fire Drill Act 

1 du icion I ■ . .n > ' 
Section 730 Duty to maintain drills. It shall be the duty of the 
principal 01 othei person in charge ol every public 01 private school or 
educational institution within the State, having nunc than 100 pupils, 
or maintained in .1 building two <>r more stories high, to instruct and train 
the pupils In means ol drills, so that they may in a sudden emergencj 
be able to leave the school building in the shortest possible time and without 
confusion 01 panic. Such dulls or rapid dismissals shall be held at least 
once in each month. 

731 Penalty for neglect. Neglect by any principal or other person in 
charge of any public or private school or educational institution to compl) 
with the provisions of this article shall be a misdemeanor punishable at the 
discretion of the court l>\ fine not exceeding fifty dollars; such hue to be paid 
to the pension fund of the local lire department where there is such a fund. 

732 Duty to instruct teachers. It shall be the duty ol the board 
of education or school board or other body having control oi the schools 
in any district or city to cause a copy of this article to be printed in the 
manual or handbook prepared for the guidance of teachers where such 
manual or handbook is in use or may hereafter come into use. 

733 ■ Not applicable to college or universities. The provisions of this 
article shall not apply to colleges or universities. 

Extract from Building Act 

I ducation Law, section 45: 1 

Halls, doors, stairways, staircases etc. i All schoolhouses for which 
plans and detailed statements shall be filed and approved, as required by the 
preceding section, shall have all halls, doors, stairways, seats, passageways 
and aisles, and all lighting and heating appliances and apparatus arranged 
to facilitate egress and afford adequate protection in cases of fire or accident. 

1 All exit doors shall open outwardly, and shall, if double doors be 
used, be fastened with movable bolts operated simultaneously by one 
handle from the inner face of the door. 

3 No staircase shall be constructed with winder steps in lieu of a 
platform but shall be constructed with straight runs, changes in direction 
being made by platforms. No door shall open immediately upon a flight 
of stairs, but a landing at least the width of the door shall be provided 
between such stairs and such doorway. 

Additional local enactments comm >nly provide further safeguards 
for public buildings in the large cities. 



5 
LIGHTING 

The eyesight of pupils should be protected and safeguarded with 
greatest care. The increasing number of children with defective vision 
resulting in some measure at least — we know not how large — from 
unfavorable schoolroom conditions conclusively demonstrates the necessity 
tor so doing. No pains nor expense, therefore, should be spared to secure 
satisfactory light. To this end, the requirements set forth with con- 
siderable minuteness in the regulations must be rigidly adhered to, as they 
all are essential to secure an adequate amount of light from the left of 
pupils and an even distribution of it on all desks without glare or bands 
of shadow. 

The most troublesome problem in connection with lighting and the 
most difficult one to solve satisfactorily is that of window shades, their 
selection, proper method of hanging, and most perplexing of all the syste- 
matic, intelligent use of them after they are installed. Even with old 
buildings, it is usually easier to secure the proper arrangement of windows 
than it is to adjust satisfactorily the difficulties that arise in connection 
with shades. 

It is common to find shades that are essentially opaque instead of 
translucent. As a result, when up, there is nothing to bar the direct rays 
of the sun, and when down, light itself is largely excluded. Another 
difficulty arises from the fact that shades are usually fastened so as to 
unroll down and are commonly left half unrolled not only on clear days 
when the sun's rays strike the windows, but also on dark days when every 
available square inch of glass surface is at a premium. Hence the upper 
half of the w ndow, which represents at least two-thirds of its efficiency 
as a medium of light, becomes largely, useless, especially so when shades 
are opaque. 

As already intimated above and stated elsewhere, a translucent shade 
should be selected, one that will admit the maximum amount of light 
without producing a glare. In color, the shades should be in harmony 
with the color of the side walls. They should either roll from the bottom 
or should be controlled by patent movable fixtures. 

26 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 2~] 

In a school building, Venetian blinds or any other kind of blinds 
within or without are not to be tolerated. It is enough to say that they 
interfere with proper lighting, without mentioning other serious objections 
to them. 

It is commonly accepted that a pupil should not be seated at a further 
distance from the nearest window than twice the height of the window 
from the floor. From this, it follows that (i) the upper part of the window 
is more efficient not alone by reason of the greater amount of light it admits 
but also because it projects light farther into the room; (2) the width of the 
schoolroom must be governed by the height of the windows; (3) it is essen- 
tial that windows should extend as near as may be to the ceiling; (4) 
the normal height of ceiling, 13! feet, derived from dividing the unit of 
air space 200 by the unit of floor area 15, is none too high in general to 
insure the proper lighting of schoolrooms. 



HEAT AND VENTILATION 

The problems involved in planning the heating and the ventilating 
systems of a school building are so intimately related as naturally to be 
discussed together. 

The necessity of proper ventilation is no longer a matter of question. 
Every thinking person who has even slightly investigated the subject is 
aware of its vital and far-reaching importance. Scientific test has proved 
again and again that good ventilation substituted for poor, means mental 
stimulation, increase in health and working energy, and the saving of life. 
One- third increase in mental efficiency, one-half decrease in days of sick 
leave, 90 per cent, 75 per cent, 60 per cent decrease in hospital death rates, 
are accredited results of specific cases where poor ventilation has been 
changed to good. 1 School boards that permit poor ventilation in the 
buildings under their control are allowing a waste in the products of the 
school, mental training and fact acquisition, that would be intolerable and 
unthinkable in a business establishment. 

Accordingly no single feature in the construction of a school building 
is more important than its heating and ventilating system. Economy 
may be exercised in a limitation of elaborate interior finishings and in 
a wise discrimination in the use of ornate exterior decorations, but in the 
instalment of a heating plant and proper system of ventilation, the truest 
economy is in furnishing the best that money can buy. Frequently when 
an appropriation proves insufficient, the heating and ventilating system, 
as the least conspicuous part of the building, is the first part to be 
cheapened. This should not be so. The heating and ventilating system 
is the very life of the building and should be the very last thing on which 
to cut costs. 

There are substantially only three methods of heating school buildings 
that conform to modern practice and to the statutory requirements of this 
and many other states. These are (1) by hot air from furnaces or venti- 
lating stoves (room heaters), (2) by indirect radiation, and (3) by indirect 
radiation supplemented by direct radiation. In a system of indirect 
radiation from steam or hot-water pipes, the air is first heated in closed 
chambers where coils of steam or hot-water pipes are installed and is then 

1 See Woodbridge's " Air and the Schoolhouse," p. 28-32. 

28 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 2Q. 

delivered as warm air through flues to the various rooms. In the third 
method, an indirect heating system as just described is installed and in 
addition to this ordinary steam or hot-water radiators are provided for 
use in extreme winter weather. This supplementary system is especially 
advisable in localities where the temperature frequently falls below zero. 
Direct radiation from steam or hot-water coils, except as just explained, 
or from ordinary stoves is no longer used in new construction, as it is 
impossible to secure adequate ventilation by this means. Statutory 
requirements regarding ventilation are now such as to require the use of 
one of the three methods described. 

Whatever system of heating is to be installed, certain general con- 
siderations should invariably control. In the first place, the heating 
system must provide for a definite system of ventilation. The Educa- 
tion Law (section 451) requires that there shall be a minimum of 30 
cubic feet of fresh air per minute for each pupil, and that the means for 
securing this ventilation shall be positive and independent of atmo- 
spheric changes. Again, only the best material and workmanship should 
be accepted. The matter of efficiency and of expense in operating a 
heating system depends largely upon its location in the building, its 
method of installation and the means employed to govern the admis- 
sion of fresh air. It is of vital importance, therefore, to have the 
system planned and the installation supervised by thoroughly compe- 
tent and experienced men who have made a special study of the 
particular problems involved. Failure to secure such men usually results 
in an inadequate system and greater ultimate expense. Fresh air should 
be taken into the building at least 10 feet above the ground, and great 
care should be taken to insure its purity and cleanliness. For the sake 
of economy, air may be taken from within the building during the night 
and recirculated. The size of the heating plant should be ample. The 
object of the heating system should always be to deliver a large quantity 
of air moderately heated rather than a small quantity at a high temperature. 
The use of undersized furnaces or boilers results in waste of fuel, since to 
secure the desired heat the fire must be crowded, and much of the heat 
together with unused combustible gas escapes through the smoke flue. 
It also results in increased wear and tear on account of the overheating 
and in an otherwise unnecessary expenditure of time and attention. The 
saving on initial cost by installing an undersized heating plant will soon 
be offset by increased cost of fuel and upkeep, and thereafter the system, 
besides giving unsatisfactory service, will occasion continuous unnecessary 
expense. Saving in " year-cost " rather than in low installation cost 
gives better results in the end. 



30 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

The following principles should be observed: 

i The warm air should be admitted to the room above the breath : ng 
line, that is, 8 or 9 feet from the floor. 

2 In a gravity system, the velocity of the heated air should not be in 
excess of 300 feet a minute. 

3 The foul air exit should be at the floor in the same wall as the 
entrance flue. 

There are in general two systems of ventilation, the gravity system 
and some form of mechanical system. 

When the gravity system is employed, warm air is conducted into 
the room directly from the furnaces or from heating chambers and the 
vitiated air is carried off by means of flues. This system depends upon 
the difference in specific gravity between warm and cold air. It is com- 
monly acknowledged that the gravity system is not practical in buildings 
of any considerable size, as it will not give desired results under all weather 
conditions. A gravity system that works satisfactorily in cold weather is 
often deficient in milder weather, because there is not sufficient difference 
between the outdoor and indoor temperature to produce an adequate air 
current. To avoid this condition as much as possible, it is necessary that 
provision should be made for warming all foul air flues, especially when the 
temperature is as described, in order to accelerate the sluggish movement 
of the outgoing foul air. 

When a mechanical system is used, the flow of air is regulated by fans. 
There are two varieties of mechanical ventilation. In the first, the plenum 
system, the air is forced into the building by fans placed in the basement, 
which drive the fresh air into heating chambers from which it is distributed 
through flues to the various rooms. In the second, called the vacuum 
system, exhaust fans are placed either at the top of the building or in the 
basement and are so operated as to draw out the vitiated air through flues 
leading from the schoolrooms. This system does not always provide an 
even flow of air and occasionally draws air into the building from undesirable 
sources. The vacuum system is desirable for use in toilets, laboratories 
or other rooms where there may be foul odors or fumes, since by this system 
all air is forcibly drawn out through the vent flues, and any passage of air 
between toilets or laboratories and adjoining rooms will be into and not 
out of the rooms first mentioned. Toilets should always have a separate 
ventilating system independent of that in the rest of the building The 
first system mentioned, the plenum system, or a combination of the two 
systems, is usually most satisfactory. The desideratum in any system of 
heating and ventilating is a large volume of air, never overheated, delivered 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS i t 

equitably to the various rooms at a moderate velocity. Mechanical venti- 
lation insures a more even distribut'.on of air under the varying atmos- 
pheric conditions. Even in summer heat, in the most trying days, with 
no air stirring outside, mechanical ventilation is needed to secure (i) the 
movement of air in schoolrooms, which has been conclusively shownto be 
as essential as proper temperature and suffic ent humidity; (2) the requisite 
amount of fresh air; (3) an even temperature of lower general range. 

In conclusion, it may be said that a satisfactory system of heat and 
ventilation will make possible the following results, each of which is vitally 
and fundamentally important: 

1 A sufficient supply of fresh, pure air. 

2 A constant motion of air in the schoolrooms unattended by unpleas- 
ant drafts. 

3 A proper range of temperature. 

4 A proper amount of humidity. 



TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY 

Temperature and humidity as associated with the schoolroom are so 
fundamentally important, they so directly and vitally concern the comfort, 
health and progress of the pupil and are so interrelated in their action 
and in their effects that they are considered together in a separate chapter. 

Schoolrooms are commonly overheated in cold weather. It is not 
unusual to find the temperature from artificial heat ranging anywhere 
from jz to 80 degrees, occasionally even above 80. It should not be 
permitted to go higher than 70 degrees nor lower than 63, and every 
reasonable effort should be made to keep it from 65 to 68. If a room is 
not comfortable within this range, either more humidity or warmer clothing 
is needed, not more heat. Higher temperatures induce weariness and 
lassitude and are depressing in their effects on mind and body The claim 
is doubtless true, that a uniform temperature of from 65 to 68 degrees 
would reduce very materially ailments that are so noticeably prevalent 
in schools. Excessive temperatures induce a weakened condition that 
renders children susceptible to colds and other affections and tend to pro- 
duce inactivity of mind that seriously interferes with progress in school 
work. To a careful observer these hurtful effects are very apparent. It 
follows, therefore, that it is vitally important to avoid high temperatures, 
to keep the range reasonably uniform and within the limits set. 

In the foreign countries to which we refer in considering standards, 
the approved temperature range is lower than with us. In England a 
temperature as low as 60 degrees is recommended. In Germany a range 
of from 61 to 65 is regarded best. In our country the general tendency 
with best authorities is to recommend a lower temperature than has 
hitherto been regarded as desirable. 

Automatic control of the heating system of a school building is very 
desirable and does not add materially to the cost. Systems for this purpose 
have now reached a stage of development such that when intelligently 
supervised they can be depended upon to give satisfactory and continuous 
service. When such a system has been installed and set for a specific 
temperature, this temperature will be maintained with satisfactory 
uniformity. Experience has shown that without automatic temperature 
control, teachers are very likely to interfere with the successful operation 

32 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 33 

of the system by opening windows, or are likely to allow the temperature 
in the room to remain so high that the comfort and health and therefore 
the mental application of the pupils are seriously interfered with. There 
can be no question but that this tendency is in many schools a very serious 
cause of backwardness in the mental development of pupils. Where 
there is not a self-regulating system, every room should be provided with 
a thoroughly tested thermometer placed in a support on the teacher's 
desk. If hung on the wall of the room, particularly an exposed wall, it 
will not register the temperature of the room accurately. The graduation 
marks should be clear and distinct with the limits mentioned, 65 to 68, 
indicated either by heavier lines or lines of a different color. It is also 
desirable to have a large legible thermometer placed where it will be within 
the sight of all pupils. 

It is not uncommon to hear the excuse that the temperature is high 
because the teacher of a particular room needs to have the room warmer 
than normal. But to this it must be said that the school is maintained 
for the pupils, not for the teacher — for the many, not the individual. 
The teacher who can not endure the temperature that should normally 
prevail in the schoolroom is thereby disqualified for teaching. 

Closely related to the temperature is another element that is also of 
utmost importance to the health and comfort of pupils and teachers, namely, 
the humidity of the schoolroom. The air always carries a varying per- 
centage of aqueous vapor. In a room this amount varies with the tem- 
perature, decreasing relatively as the temperature increases. A cubic 
foot of free air at zero, when heated to the normal temperature of the 
schoolroom practically triples its volume, and hence has its capacity for 
holding moisture increased more than threefold Hence cold air admitted 
into the cold air room with a normal percentage of humidity, after being 
heated for admission to the schoolrooms, possesses an abnormally low per- 
centage of it, unless an additional amount has been supplied in the mean- 
time, a condition that rarely obtains to any appreciable extent except with 
new heating plants. As a result of extended investigations in this State 
and elsewhere, it is a conservative statement to say that the relative 
humidity in the schoolroom is as a rule well under 30 or approximately 
one-half the amount actually needed. Air when thus deprived of the 
normal amount of humidity tends to abstract it from objects with which 
it comes in contact, thereby occasioning the shrinking of floors, doors and 
windows, the cracking of furniture and woodwork and trimming, and what 
is of particular concern to us, too rapid absorption of moisture from the 



34 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

skin and mucous membrane of the body with hurtful results that may be 
summed up as follows: 

i It produces a dryness and harshness of the lining membranes of 
the air passages often inducing colds and throat troubles and rendering 
these membranes more susceptible to pathogenic germs. 

2 The effect upon the skin is marked. It tends to divert the flow of 
blood from the brain to the skin and to produce needless perspiration. 
This results in discomfort and disinclination to mental activity. 

3 It requires a higher temperature to produce the same sensation of 
heat as is produced by a lower temperature with a higher percentage 
of air humidity. The difference is so great as to exert a marked effect 
upon the pupils' health and progress. Striking illustrations of the effects 
are cited by those who have conducted special investigations along this 
line. It is also a matter of common observation. For greater comfort 
we sit out of doors in springtime in a humid air that registers several degrees 
lower than is generally maintained indoors where the relative percentage 
of moisture has been reduced 50 per cent or more by artificial heat. 

Further it is estimated that an actual saving of 10 per cent in the 
cost ot fuel results when a proper percentage of moisture is maintained 
in the air. 

Although authorities differ somewhat as to the desired percentage of 
humidity to be maintained in schoolrooms, it is safe to say that in extreme 
winter weather it may properly range from 40 to 50 per cent, preferably 
as near to the upper limit as may be without resulting in condensation 
on the windows. In milder weather it is believed greater comfort will 
result with the humidity above rather than below 50, with 6d as the upper 
limit. 

In buildings already constructed where no provision has been made to 
supply humidity various devices have been successfully used to meet this 
defect. School officials desiring information on this subject are advised to 
correspond with the department. 



8 

ENTRANCES. CORRIDORS, STAIRWAYS AND CLOAKROOMS 

Entrances 

In larger schools it is desirable to provide at least three entrances, 
one for the public, one for the boys and one for the girls. In locating 
them, due reference should be had to the convenience and comfort of pupils 
and public, and to the ease of supervision. Outside steps are undesirable. 
When they are necessary they should be restricted to the lowest adequate 
height and should be sheltered. Suitable vestibules are needed to 
economize fuel and save drafts. All exit doors must be opened outward, 
and if double doors are used, must be fastened by movable bolts ope- 
rated simultaneously by one handle from the inner surface of the door. 

Corridors 

Main corridors may vary from 8 to 14 feet in width, according to the 
size of the building. This width should be in addition to any portion 
used for cloakrooms, exits, entrances or open spaces about stairways. 
In buildings of more than three and less than seven rooms to a floor, the 
minimum width should be 10 feet; in larger buildings the minimum should 
be 12 feet. Corridors may be made too wide as well as too narrow. The 
former type add needlessly to the cost of original construction and, more 
important, to the annual cost of maintenance. The latter interferes with 
ready ingress and egress and seriously detracts from the interior appearance 
of the building. Great care should be exercised to see that the corridors 
are. well lighted. As far as possible the light should be direct. Foot 
warmers, drinking fountains and standpipes or other effective fire-fighting 
appliances should be placed in the corridors. Wash bowls should also 
be provided unless they are to be found elsewhere. 

Stairways 

Stairways should be so located as to be within the shortest distance 
of the greatest number of pupils. Stairs should be of sufficient width 
to allow three files of pupils to pass at one time. In buildings of eight 
rooms or more, there should be at least two stairways. Regulations require 
risers to be approximately 6 inches high and treads to be 11 inches wide. 
All risers and treads in each run must be strictly uniform. There should 

35 



36 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

always be two turns with a wide landing between successive floors. 
Winding stairs are forbidden by the Education Law, which also provides 
that no door shall open directly upon a flight of stairs, but a landing at 
least the width of the door shall be provided between such stairs and such 
doorway. Where stairways are finished with open work, care should be 
taken to see that the balustrades are sufficiently high and strong for pre- 
vention of accident. On the whole, it is considered better to make them 
solid. 

Cloakrooms 

Four principal systems are used to care for outer wraps: (1) a general 
cloakroom either in the basement or in widened parts of the corridors; 
(2) a cloakroom for each schoolroom; (3) a room for each sex on each floor 
connected with the toilet rooms; (4) ventilated wardrobes in the school- 
rooms. Any of these forms is satisfactory for upper grade or high school 
use, but for the lower grades either separate cloakrooms adjoining the 
respective grade rooms, or ventilated wardrobes should be provided. 
Separate rooms add, it is estimated, about 4 per cent to the cost of the 
building. For a fifty-seat room, the minimum length of hanging space 
is 30 running feet. Cloakrooms should be of sufficient width to provide 
plenty of room for ingress and egress without interfering with wraps. The 
hangers should be so arranged that wraps will be sufficiently distant from 
the wall to provide for free passage of air behind them. The height of 
hangers should be adapted to the average size of the pupils who are to 
use them, the height usually varying from 3 to 3^ feet for primary children, 
to 5 and 5^ feet for high school pupils. 

Drinking Facilities 

Districts must provide suitable drinking facilities. Either sanitary 
drinking fountains or individual cups must be supplied. When running 
water is not available either a bubbling fountain or a suitable covered tank 
or jar with faucet is required. The use of a drinking fountain is so essen- 
tial for ease of administration and economy of time as well as for sani- 
tary reasons that districts will be required to provide them in all cases 
where running water is available and they can without unreasonable diffi- 
culty and expense be protected from frost. One fountain for approxi- 
mately one hundred pupils is deemed sufficient. Those intended for the 
use of small children should be set sufficiently low. 

Utmost care needs to be exercised to see that the source of water 
supply is free and is kept free from any contamination. Wells must be 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 37 

made sanitary. They must be thoroughly and completely protected against 
all surface drainage and must not be located where they can be fed from 
veins of water that receive any of their supply from barnyards, privies, 
cesspools, cemeteries or other objectionable sources. Water from school 
wells should be analyzed at the beginning of each school year. 



9 

ROOMS OTHER THAN GRADE ROOMS 

Special Rooms 

Whenever practicable, the following rooms may well be provided: 
a principal's office with an adjoining room for supplies, a play room and 
a combined emergency and teachers' rest room. The play room, for use 
in inclement weather, needs to be well lighted and ventilated. The teachers' 
rest and emergency room should be provided with proper toilet facilities 
and may well have as a part of its furnishings a case containing simple 
remedies. Other special rooms may be added to meet local needs. 

Recitation rooms, laboratories, auditorium and rooms for vocational 
instruction should be arranged so as to be as readily accessible as possible 
for pupils who are to use them, except that laboratories should be so placed 
as to avoid diffusion of fumes through the building. 

The Library in Rural Schools 

Every rural school should have a place for the proper housing of the 
school library. It should be the aim (i) to make the books easily accessible 
to all the children; (2) to enable the teacher to exercise close and intelligent 
supervision. This may be effected in three ways: (1) through the use 
of bookcases with glass doors; (2) through the construction of shallow 
recesses in a partition wall of the room — a very satisfactory method 
and a most inexpensive one when building; (3) through the construction 
of a special room provided either with suitable shelves or with bookcases. 
Such a room should be an alcove of the schoolroom without any inter- 
vening wall. If this alcove is of sufficient size, a reading table may be pro- 
vided for the use of the pupils. 

The Library in Academic Schools 

Every classroom and. department should have its library. Unless 
the general library is a very large one, or is a community library as well 
as a school library, a separate room is not necessary nor it is desirable 
unless it is an alcove off the main study room. Experience shows that 
libraries kept in separate rooms are commonly used to a much less extent 
than when distributed through the schoolrooms. It is fundamentally 
important to have libraries as accessible as possible both to pupils and 
teachers. 

38 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 39 

In schools where there is a general study room, it is well to keep most 
of the books for academic grades in that room; otherwise they should be 
distributed among the d fferent recitation rooms in accordance with the 
subjects taught in the various rooms. The books of a general character 
would naturally be kept in the room in which English is taught. 

When the man library, because of its size or for other reasons, is 
kept in a separate room, this room should be adequately lighted, well 
heated and easily accessible. In that event, the library should be 
competently supervised by a regular librarian who has had some training 
for the work and should be open the whole or a part of each day, as circum- 
stances may dictate. 

The size of the classroom library as well as of the general school library 
will vary with the enrolment of pupils and the valuation of the district; 
but in general it may be said that in the rural school and in each classroom 
of village or city school, provision should be made for at least two hundred 
volumes. 

Laboratories 

An ideal arrangement for laboratories is to group them around a central 
room which may be used for scientific lecture and demonstration, and for 
general recitation purposes. This arrangement reduces the expense of 
fitting up and equipping. Laboratories should be well ventilated, and 
separate dust-proof glass-front cases are needed for apparatus and 
chemicals. Every chemical laboratory should have at least one sink 
covered with a hood to carry off objectionable odors and gases. There 
should be plumbing arrangements for the free supply and disposal of 
water, and the room should be wired for electric ty and piped for gas, 
if these conveniences are obtainable. 

Commercial Rooms 

In schools where a full-sized commercial department is maintained 
three classrooms shou d be prov.ded, one chiefly for bookkeeping, somewhat 
larger than the normal type of h'gh school classroom, one for typewriting 
somewhat smaller, and a room of standard size for other commercial classes. 
Suitable cases and shelves should be provided for commercial collections 
and for supplementary and reference literature. Whatever arrangement 
is made for the hanging of maps should not interfere with the use of the 
curtain or other fixtures that shou d be provided for a stereopticon. All 
the rooms used for commerc al classes should be en suite. 



40 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Auditorium 

It is highly desirable that an auditorium be included in every school 
building of more than eight rooms. The uses and advantages of such a 
room are various. The bringing together of the school as a unit makes 
the direction and supervision of the school easier, helps to produce an 
enthusiastic and healthy school spirit, promotes school unity, gives marked 
stimulus and increased firmness of purpose to the pupils of the lower grades, 
and makes possible school entertainments, helpful addresses, and the fitting 
observation of special days. An auditorium is also needed for music classes 
and choral work, for drill for public speaking, in recitation, declamation, 
essay, oration, debate and elocution exercises in general. Further, the school 
auditorium often serves effectively as a civic center, a place for the sug- 
gestion and discussion of plans for community betterment. On account 
of ready accessibility, safety in case of fire, and the saving of time in assem- 
bling the school, the auditorium should be on the ground floor and first 
floor, or on the first floor and second floor. Only in cases where the most 
rigid economy must be practised should the assembly room be placed in 
the basement or on the third floor. It is usually so constructed as to have 
entrances from two floors, the upper one leading to a balcony. This arrange- 
ment renders it easier to procure the requisite seating capacity and with 
it a well-proportioned auditorium. It also facilitates entrance and exit. 
In schools of less than eight rooms, it is commonly necessary to provide 
an assembly room instead of an auditorium, a room that needs to be used 
for study as well as for assembly. For assembly use from 6 to 7 square 
feet to each pupil is sufficient. 

Rooms for Vocational Training 

There are so many types of vocational training, and the size of com- 
munities is so variable, that it is practically impossible to lay down any 
general requirements which will meet the situation. It is practically impos- 
sible to state the requirements for trade schools. These schools will be 
located mainly in large cities and will be administered under special con- 
ditions adapted to the industrial needs of the community and the popu- 
lation^of the city. 

Day continuation and part-time schools require very little equipment 
apart from regular classrooms, the practical work being carried on in the 
shops, stores and factories of the city. 

Evening vocational schools use the equipment of the day schools. 

There are four situations, however, in which some specific directions 
may be helpful. 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 41 

I Schools oj agriculture, mechanic arts and homemaking. These schools 
are really departments of existing high schools and academies, the pupils 
reciting English, history and other academic subjects in the regular classes, 
and using for a portion of the day the laboratories and certain special 
classrooms in agriculture, mechanic and household arts. 

The agricultural department needs two rooms: (a) recitation and lab- 
oratory room, (b) shop. The recitation and laboratory room should be 
about the size of a regular classroom and may be located in any part of 
the building which is well lighted, well ventilated and dry. It should be 
as near the shop as possible. It is even well to have them join. This room 
should have running water with sink, gas (if available), blackboards and 
spaces for cases and cupboards. 

The shop, as already stated, should join this recitation and laboratory 
room; otherwise, it should be in the basement. It is especially important 
that it be located in a light and dry place with southern exposure. In length, 
it should not be less than 24 feet, and in width, not less than 18 feet. It 
should have a substantial floor and an outside chimney for the forge. 

The homemaking department requires two rooms, (a) sewing room, 
(b) cooking room. As in the case of agriculture, these two rooms, if pos- 
sible, should adjoin, as one teacher is in charge of both rooms and school 
programs often make it impossible to avoid a conflict in classes. 

The cooking room needs light, heat and ventilation. It should have 
running water, gas (if available), coal range with hot water front attach- 
ment, cases, cupboards, blackboard and cooking tables. 

Both these rooms should be as large as medium-sized schoolrooms. 
The sewing room should be provided with suitable tables; this room may 
be used not only for millinery, dressmaking and plain sewing, but also for 
drawing and household decoration. A garment-fitting space should be 
provided in a corner by the use of rods and curtains. 

2 General industrial schools. These schools will be a part of a pre- 
vocational school system in a large city and will constitute, in most cases, 
the only vocational training in the smaller communities. It is difficult 
to outline, except in a general way, the equipment necessary. It is likely 
that four rooms will be required, as follows: 

a Woodworking and patternmaking room. This should be well ven- 
tilated, well lighted and dry. It should have a substantial floor to absorb 
the jar of woodworking machinery. It should have light on two sides 
and should be as large as the largest schoolroom. 

b A general mechanical room the size of a large classroom, in which 
there is place and equipment for sheet-metal working, plumbing and iron 
work. 



42 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

c An electrical room the size of a small classroom. 

d A fourth room may be used for special phases of vocational train- 
ing not included in the ether rooms, such as printing, painting and molding. 

It is assumed that all these rooms must be well lighted, heated and 
ventilated and kept free from moisture; that they have space for cup- 
boards and lockers, and storage room for lumber and material; that there 
is gas, running water and electrical power. All connecting floors and walls 
should be made thoroughly sound proof. 

3 Manual training and household arts. This equipment is planned 
for schools other than vocational where the manual and household arts 
are given for purposes of general education. At least three rooms are 
needed: 

a The manual arts room. This room should be at least the size of a 
large grade or classroom. It should have equipment for various expres- 
sions of the manual arts including woodworking, light iron work, and sheet- 
metal work. Preferably provision should be made as well for printing and 
electrical work. 

b Domestic science room. This should be the size of a regular class- 
room, and should be provided with gas, running water, cupboards, service 
tables and cooking equipment. 

c Domestic art room. This should be equipped with tables and a 
fitting space. This room, in small places, may be used as well for drawing 
and household decoration. 

4 Drawing or art room. For this room, at least a regular sized class- 
room should be provided with light admitted on the north side only. There 
should be a small amount of blackboard space, a storeroom for supplies, 
running water, artificial light, wall sockets for lantern, and movable 
tables which may be grouped in twos, threes or fours according to the 
size of the classes. 

The room should be so arranged that it will admit of use for exhibition 
purposes or for work in household arts courses. This room should also 
be of such a character that it can be converted into a school gallery or 
art lecture room when needed. Space should also be provided for the 
gathering and installation of school museum material for use in art classes. 

Larger cities offering courses in applied design involving the use of 
the soft metals, clay etc. should provide one or two additional rooms smaller 
in size, equipped for such purposes, and including bench table running 
the length of the window wall surface, just below the windows, with drawers 
beneath, running water, electricity and gas, chimney flue, movable tables 
and exhibition wall space. 



TOILET FACILITIES 
Outdoor Closets 

It is fundamentally important that all schools in city, village and 
country be provided with suitable toilet facilities. They can not be suitable 
unless they are sanitary, and experience has demonstrated beyond the 
possibility of contradiction that the old type of outdoor watercloset, or 
earth closet, is not sanitary or decent, but to the contrary is a constant 
menace both to health and morals. 

As every boy and girl under the tutelage of the State is entitled alike 
to all essential safeguards, this statement necessarily applies to all schools 
regardless of size or location. The claim that the old type of outdoor 
closet has served all purposes of the district for generations and is there- 
fore acceptable and suitable is without weight. To the contrary, experience 
with it in the past conclusively proves that it is wholly unfit and unsatis- 
factory. The public school surely ought not to be the last institution to 
make progress, and particularly in matters affecting the comfort, health 
and lives of the children who, obedient to the laws of the State, are in 
attendance therein. The excuse that a district can not afford such 
improvements is an argument in favor of consolidation in such a case, 
in order to form a district that can afford to provide the facilities that 
are unmistakably essential to the pupil's welfare. 

Regulations 

From what has been said, it is manifest that the only remedy for the 
outdoor closet is to abolish it. With that end in view and to insure in 
its place suitable and adequate facilities, the following regulations have 
been adopted: 

1 Approval of plans for the construction of new school buildings and 
for the remodeling of old buildings can not be given until provision is made 
for an approved system of sanitary closets. 

2 All public schools must be provided with approved closet facilities 
before September i, 191 8. 

3 Whenever it becomes necessary for a district to provide new toilet 
facilities before the expiration of the time limit established, such facilities 
must be of approved type. 



44 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Types Approved 

The following types are approved to meet varying conditions: 
i A flush system. When water and suitable sewerage are available, 
schools will be expected to instal this system. 

2 A dry closet system. 

3 A chemical system. 

4 The L. R. S. type, described in Public Health Bulletin 51, published 
by the United States Treasury Department and issued by the Government 
Printing Office in 1914. 

5 The type where water-tight nonabsorbent receptacles, easily 
removable, are provided and clean dust or ashes is supplied and scattered 
freely over the excreta whenever the closet is used. The use of this type 
is restricted to isolated rural districts with small enrolment and low 
valuation, and special permission must be secured in every case. 

In all types the following conditions must be met: 

a The closet or toilet must be in a room attached to and made a part 
of the school building. 

b The walls and ceiling of this room must be constructed and finished 
in like manner as other rooms of the building. 

c The urinals must be constructed of noncorrosive, nonabsorbent 
material. 

d In all cases the rooms must be well lighted and ventilated. 

e Toilet paper, wash bowl or basin and towels (paper towels) must 
be furnished. 

/ Toilet rooms must be heated in all cases where it is practicable 
to do so. 

g Before constructing sanitary closets, a simple sketch of the rooms 
and approaches and a description of the closet must be submitted to the 
State Department of Education for approval. 

In the last three types named, the following additional conditions 
must be met: 

a Receptacles must be of ample capacity and must be of noncorrosive 
and nonabsorbent material. 

b Provision must be made for the ventilation of receptacles by means 
of ventilators extending through the roof. 

c There must be a thoroughly ventilated approach leading to the 
closet from the coat room, corridor or hallway of the building. 

d All receptacles must be of a type to be emptied outside of class- 
rooms, recitation rooms, hallways and toilet rooms, and the construction 
must be such as to facilitate this process. 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 45 

e The vaults must be tight so as to render the entrance of flies, 
mosquitoes and other insects absolutely impossible. 

/ Seats must be hinged and made to close automatically. 

Plumbing 

1 Plumbing must conform to local ordinances where such are in 
force. Where none exist, commonly accepted standards as exemplified 
in city ordinances shall govern. 

2 When no sewerage system is available for use, an application must 
be made to the State Department of Health for approval of a sewage dis- 
posal plant, as that department has exclusive jurisdiction over the dis- 
position of sewage. 

3 In other than rural communities, both local and general vents 
must be provided. 

4 One seat should be provided for every 25 girls and one seat and 
one urinal for every 40 boys, or a combination seat and urinal for every 
25 boys. Both seats and urinals should be separated into compartments. 
Absorbent or corrosive materials can not be approved for use in the con- 
struction of urinals. 



INTERIOR FINISH AND TRIM 

In the interior finish, the general object is to avoid projections which 
catch dust and increase the difficulty of securing cleanliness. For this 
reason, all woodwork should be of plain and simple pattern and all deep- 
cut moldings should be avoided. Plain veneered doors without transoms 
are recommended instead of the ordinary paneled doors. A sanitary 
finish about windows can be obtained by omitting all trim and plastering 
the corners round against the frames. To facilitate sweeping and cleaning, 
the junction of the baseboard and floor should be finished with cove molding, 
where the conditions are such as to permit. It is of especial importance 
that the corridors be finished in this way. If wainscoting is to be used 
in any portion ot a schoolhouse, brick is preferable to wood, since it can 
be finished as attractively and is much more sanitary. Keene cement 
troweled smooth and suitably painted is also recommended. 

Interior paint should ordinarily be of a flat color and washable. Light 
gray-green or drab is recommended as a wall color for southern exposure 
and light cream or buff for northern exposure. The dado should be a 
darker tone of the wall color, and the ceilings, white very slightly modified 
by the wall color. Woodwork should not have a gloss finish; instead, 
the natural or dull finish is recommended. 1 

Floors 
Where wood floors are used, they should be of a good grade of material, 
close grained and free from knots, so that they will wear evenly. Narrow 
width boards are preferable. Maple or oak floors are recommended, 
though rift-sawed Georgia pine of high grade gives good satisfaction and 
is often used when a cheaper floor is necessary. In nonfireproof buildings, 
the floors should be double and should be thoroughly deadened. For the 
best methods of deadening floors, a competent architect or reports of current 
engineering practice should be consulted. Whatever the material is, 
great care needs to be exercised in its selection, as the best quality is in 
the end the cheapest. Dustproof cement, plastic cement, tile and com- 
position floors of various kinds are commonly used in the corridors of 
large buildings. When cement is used, it should always be laid in blocks 
or squares. 

1 See chapter on Schoolroom Decoration. 

46 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 47 

Battleship linoleum is coming into use for schoolroom floors, especially 
for corridors. It seems to be giving such good satisfaction and is so highly 
recommended for sanitary reasons that its use is likely to become much 
more prevalent. The following points are urged in its favor: (i) it is 
semifi reproof, (2) it is noiseless, (3) it is not slippery, but smooth and 
elastic, (4) it needs no oiling, (5) it is germicidal, (6) it is without crevices 
for the collection of dust, (7) it will outwear first quality oak or maple 
and will be in better condition in the corresponding stages of its use. At 
present market prices the cost of battleship linoleum laid on concrete floors 
is 9 cents more a square yard than the cost of first quality maple laid on 
under flooring or wood sleepers over concrete. 1 Movable furniture should 
be used with this flooring, but this has some advantages, among them 
ease of cleaning by vacuum cleaner. 

Care should be taken to avoid the laying of resonant floors. 

Attics, especially over metal ceilings, should have tight floors to prevent 
the radiation of heat upward in the winter and downward in the summer. 

Blackboards 

Blackboards should be placed on the side of the room opposite the 
windows, behind the teacher's desk and supplemented if necessary at 
the rear of the room. Because of the extra expense, and especially because 
of the absorption of light, no more blackboard space should be supplied 
than is necessary. 2 Approximately 50 feet is enough for a grade room 
of normal size, and except in recitation rooms where space for boards is 
limited, 36 inches or at most 42 inches gives a sufficient width. In a room 
designed for study hall purposes, blackboards should be placed in the front 
of the rooms only, both for the reasons already stated and because an 
unnecessary expanse of board interferes seriously with the effective deco- 
ration of the room. 

Glass blackboard, extensively used in some foreign countries, possesses 
some points of superiority over any other material, but because of the 
expense of securing a suitable quality, of grinding and otherwise preparing 
it for use, it is rarely found in schools here. All in all, slate blackboard 
is the best that is available at present, and its use is strongly recommended. 
A good quality of this board, well set and properly cared for, will last 
indefinitely. If for any reason it is not available, the best possible sub- 
stitute should be secured. 



1 This comparatively high cost is due to the fact that the price a square yard has recently advanced approxi- 
mately ico per cent by reason of the cutting off of the foreign supply as a result of the war, and it is therefore 
assumed will be a temporary condition. 

2 See chapter on Schoolroom Decoration. 



48 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Hyloplate and cement are forms of board that may be used, but they 
are not so satisfactory as slate, and in the end, it is believed, are not so 
economical. 

A chalk and eraser trough with an open wire cover of one-fourth of 
an inch mesh with hinges or with an easily removable tray should be placed 
at the bottom of each board. The inside width of the trough should be 
2§ inches and the depth one-half of an inch above and one-half of an inch 
below the mesh. 



SCHOOLROOM DECORATION 

Since the environment of the child is a potent factor in molding char- 
acterjand producing impressions of lifelong effectiveness, it is important 
to see that his school environment teaches him to appreciate beauty in 
nature and art, to know some of the fundamental principles of beauty, 
and to make a practical use of these principles, to the end that his esthetic 
nature shall be developed. Hence the decoration of schoolrooms should 
receive the kind and amount of attention commensurate with its 
importance. 

Before the consideration of choice and purchase of pictures, naturally 
comes that of the proper preparation of the walls for the pictures. The 
walls are a fundamental element in the interior decoration, and the prepa- 
ration of them as an appropriate background for pictures should receive 
careful attention when a building is being erected. The problems involved 
in such preparation are principally the division of the wall surface with 
a view to securing pleasing composition and suitable spaces for pictures, 
and the tinting of the walls. Simple principles of good proportion and 
space division are taught in the schools and yet oftentimes the school 
walls are a direct violation of such principles. 

It will be observed that the recommendations made herein for the 
improvement of the appearance of school walls do not involve additional 
expenditure of money but do require that forethought and careful con- 
sideration be given to these matters and that certain things be provided 
for when the building is being erected rather than at some later time. 

Blackboards, registers, clocks and certain other essential articles of 
equipment that must have a place on school walls may be made a part 
of good space composition. A blackboard is never a decorative element 
and only so much blackboard surface as is actually needed should be 
provided. 1 A small amount is required for a study hall. Observe the 
arrangements of blackboards in the illustrations and consider how the 
pleasing effect of each room would be marred by blackboards extending 
around the room. 

The problem of utilizing to the best advantage for decorative purposes 
the space between blackboard and ceiling is an important one. A wall 

1 See page 47. 



5<D THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

picture should not rest upon anything, but should have space all about it. 
Over the blackboard, even if only a few inches above the molding, pictures 
are unavoidably rather high. For this reason, it is desirable that the 
blackboards be no higher than necessary and that no attempt at decoration 
along the top be made. A wide panel of wood or a second molding several 
inches above the blackboard for display of pupils' work seriously interferes 
with the proper placing of wall pictures. 

The general location of a register is, of course, largely a matter of 
engineering, but as there is some leeway in its exact position, it should 
be placed where it will interfere the least with good decorative effects. 
In order that it may be as unobtrusive as possible, its position should be 
subordinate to any that may be desirable for pictures; it should be either 
entirely above or entirely below the picture molding; otherwise it makes 
a break in the line of the molding and thus attracts undue attention to 
itself. It should also be painted the same color as the wall of which it is 
a part. 

Aside from the necessity of placing a clock where it can be easily seen, 
care should be taken to hang it below, not on, the picture molding, and 
so to select its location as to avoid interfering with large spaces suitable 
for picture hanging. Frequently a clock may very properly be placed 
over a doorway. See illustrations for good placing of clocks. 

Picture molding should be put on the walls of every school and pro- 
vision for the proper placing of it should be made in the building 
specifications. Ample space for suitable pictures and good space division 
being the ends sought, the molding should be placed to meet these as far 
as possible. The main determining factors in the placing of the molding 
should be the height of the walls and the extent to which they are broken 
by blackboards or other articles of equipment or furnishings. Picture 
molding should usually be placed lower in corridors and rooms with 
unbroken wall spaces than in rooms with blackboards. Observe the nice 
proportion of the spaces of the corridor shown in illustration. The space 
between molding and ceiling is a little less than one-third of the space 
between molding and wainscot and about one-half of the wainscot. The 
picture molding in the corridor shown in the illustration is also well placed, 
but in a room with blackboards molding at the same distance from the 
ceiling as this one would be too low. A molding that divides the space 
between blackboard and ceiling into two equal or nearly equal parts 
fails to give a desirable variety in space division and prevents the correct 
hanging of pictures of suitable size. When desired for rooms with black- 
boards, the molding may be placed at the cove. If not at the cove, it 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 5 I 

should be placed about one-fourth of the distance from ceibng to black- 
board, the ratio of the height of the space above the molding to that below 
being therefore about i to 3. The proportion will be more pleasing if 
the measurements are not too mathematical, that is, rather than an exact 
ratio of 1 to 3, it should be either a little more or a little less than 1 to 3. 

A picture molding affords a very successful finish for the " coved " 
ceiling. See illustration. 

White walls are injurious to the eyes, cheerless and inartistic. It is 
fully as important that the walls of a schoolroom be of some soft, pleasing 
color as that they be decorated with pictures. 

In planning a color scheme for a building, the following suggestions 
should be borne in mind: 

Intense or strong colors should never be used for wall decoration. 
Soft, neutral colors are restful to the eyes and afford an unobtrusive and 
therefore appropriate background for pictures. 

Harmony — unity in variety — should be sought. Each room should 
be made an attractive unit and also a part of a harmonious whole. A room 
with ceiling, walls and woodwork in one tone is monotonous; a building 
with only one color on the walls is also uninteresting in that respect. 
Striking or unusual effects or combinations of color should, however, be 
avoided. Variations of green, yellow and orange-yellow afford a wide 
range of appropriate colors for school walls; for example, tints of green 
and of yellow, light gray-green, buff and tan. Green being a cool color 
is generally recommended for rooms receiving much sunlight, while cream 
color and other tints of yellow give the effect of sunshine in the sunless 
room. 

In any room or corridor the dado should be a darker value of the 
color used on the main part of the wall; the ceiling, a very light tint, white 
slightly modified by the color used on the wall. When the picture molding 
is not at the cove, the space between the molding and the ceiling may be 
the same as the ceiling or a somewhat lighter value of the color used on the 
side walls. 

Emphasis must again be laid upon the unfortunate effects resulting 
frequently from a disregard of the walls as a background for pictures. 
That portion of the wall on which pictures are to hang should be of one 
tone; otherwise the line where the two tones meet will cross the picture 
and detract from its effectiveness. 

Sometimes above a chair rail and at the ceiling a border of good 
simple design may be used, but neither this nor a band of darker tone 
should ever be used above the blackboard, because pictures must either 



52 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

be hung higher than they would be otherwise, or else placed down over 
the border. 

The bulletin board is an important contributory factor in good 
decoration. The tendency to clutter schoolroom walls with all sorts of 
small prints, examples of pupils' work and other objects, fastening along 
the blackboard molding or other parts of the woodwork, is very general. 
If a suitable place were provided for the display of such articles, the appear- 
ance of most rooms vculd be greatly irrprcved. (See illustration.) 
Furthermore, the bulletin board with a fresh display of pupils' work or 
of pictures from time to time would challenge the attention and prove 
a constant source of interest to the occupants of the room. Many of the 
building boards that are on the market would make good bulletin boards. 
They are more sanitary than burlap and can be painted to harmonize 
with the color scheme of the room. 

Pictures to be hung on school walls should be chosen primarily for 
their artistic qualities and not for their teaching value. Besides intrinsic 
beauty, a wall picture should have the following qualifications: the subject 
should be suited to the comprehension of the occupants of the room in 
which the picture is to hang; the picture should be of good quality; the 
shape and size should be appropriate to the space to be occupied; the 
frame should be durable and in harmony with the picture and surroundings; 
the placement of the picture should be such that it may be seen to advantage 
and also fit in with the general decorative scheme of the room. (See 
illustrations.) 



13 

CARE OF SCHOOLROOMS 

Janitor Service 

It is essential that the very best available man be secured as janitor. 
The importance of this position is not commonly realized. He not only 
holds the keys to the doors but also to the entrances for light, heat and 
ventilation. He is the one person who has immediate and constant super- 
vision over those fundamental requisites that directly and vitally concern 
the comfort and health of pupils and teachers. 

The responsibility of the janitor in these and other directions is very 
great and far-reaching. Upon him more than upon anyone else must 
rest the care and sanitation of the school building and the safeguarding 
of the school property. He comes into close and intimate association 
with teachers and pupils. Work of such importance and involving such 
difficult problems calls for a man of excellent character, high intelligence 
and special training. It is not the place for a man of uncertain reputation, 
for the accommodation of one who has failed in other occupations, or for 
one who has reached the period in life when he desires an easy indoor job. 

The success of the heating and ventilating systems and the proper 
use of the toilets depend largely upon the care and judgment shown by 
the janitor in supervising them. Frequently the complaints that arise 
from the failure of heating and ventilating plants to work properly are 
occasioned by the inefficiency of the janitor. Directions for the operation 
of heating and ventilating systems and for general duties in the care of 
the building should be provided by the board of trustees and should be 
rigidly and persistently adhered to. The school board in a district of 
any considerable size frequently loses more money through the incom- 
petency of the janitor than would hire a thoroughly efficient one. A school 
janitor should be fitted for his work through special study of the problems 
involved in the proper care of school buildings, and whenever practicable 
by a course of special training either in night school, vocational school, 
or as an assistant under a janitor of successful experience. The ability 
to shovel coal, carry out ashes and sweep floors, therefore, is not all that 
is required of a janitor; tact, common sense, energy, character are also 
requisite and are abundantly worth any reasonable expenditure to secure 
them. 

53 



54 • THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Dust and Its Removal 

It is stated by best authorities that dust is the greatest carrier and 
distributor of pathogenic germs, but it is also said that dust does more 
injury through its irritating qualities than through the disease-bearing 
organisms that it contains. This is particularly true of dust in the school. 
It is therefore vitally important that schoolrooms should be kept 
scrupulously clean and free from dust. To secure this result, they must 
not be swept and dusted dry. The end in view in any method of cleaning 
is to remove as much dust as possible and leave as little as may be dis- 
tributed. The following preventive measures are suggested for use as 
conditions permit: 

i The best method of removing dust is by vacuum cleaning, but 
a satisfactory outfit must be installed. It must be admitted, however, 
that frequently vacuum cleaning has not proved a success, but it is believed 
that this is due to the selection of the wrong type of cleaner, to faulty 
installation Or to failure to use the machine properly. Faulty installation 
is believed to be the prevailing error. Outlets in halls through each of which 
several rooms are to be cleaned do not prove satisfactory because the hose 
is then too long and heavy to handle and the friction too great to get suffi- 
cient suction. 

2 The use of standard sweeping compounds, sold freely in the markets 
under various trade names, largely prevents the dust from rising in the 
air and is a great aid in freeing schoolrooms from this evil. 

3 The use of, moistened sawdust is a comparatively inexpensive 
method of keeping down the dust, though it is claimed that fine particles 
of the sawdust are apt to get into the air and that better results would 
be insured if the sawdust were moistened evenly throughout with a mixture 
of oil, turpentine and disinfectant. A little clean sand mixed in will help 
to give desired weight. 

4 Floor oil is frequently used to keep down the dust. There exists 
a great diversity of opinion as to the merits of such oils. The following 
advantages are claimed: (a) it prevents the dust from being stirred up 
by the passage of the pupils through the room; (b) through its use dust 
is prevented from rising in the air during the process of sweeping; (r) it 
protects the floor, prevents it from splintering, wearing up rough and 
cracking; (d) it saves time in dusting. The following objections to the 
use of floor oil are frequently raised : (a) it stains and darkens the floor, 
leaves gummed patches and elevations, particularly about the legs of 
desks; (b) through its effect in staining the floor, it tends to darken the 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 55 

rooms by absorbing the light and gives the impression ot uncleanliness; 
(c) the odor is said to be offensive; (d) it increases the fire hazard; (/) the 
most frequent objection is that it soils clothing and injures and is liable 
to ruin rubbers. 

In general it may be said that the disadvantages claimed doubtless 
arise largely from the use of a poor quality of oil and through the improper 
and too frequent application of it. 

If oil is employed, it should be applied to the floors several days before 
they are to be used. Great care should be used to have the floors 
thoroughly clean. A thin application of light oil of good quality should 
be well and evenly applied with a brush made for the purpose, and any 
excess should be carefully wiped off. It should then be permitted to dry 
for several days before the room is used. The adoption of these precautions 
will, it is believed, largely remove the objections to its use. 

5 Oil brushes of various kinds if properly used give good results. 
Hair or fiber brooms either of a self-oiling variety or rendered oily by 
judicious application of oil by the janitor are used with good results. Even 
when floors are oiled occasionally, as described under paragraph 4 above, 
either some form of sweeping compound should be used ot which oil is 
a constituent, or an application of oil directly to a hair or fiber broom 
is recommended. 

6 In wall decorations and displays of school work, every reasonable 
effort should be made to prevent so far as possible the collection ot dust. 
School work displays on the walls should be frequently changed in order 
to prevent accumulations of dust and to remove what has accumulated. 

7 Special pains should be taken to select dusters that will take up as 
much dust as possible and disperse as little as may be. Feather dusters 
should never be used. 

The condition of the air in the schoolroom, its purity, temperature 
and relative humidity is the most important consideration. Air, light 
and attractiveness are all essentials, but first and foremost is air. The 
janitor is the one person who has immediate and constant supervision 
over it. The responsibility of the janitor in this and other directions 
is therefore very great and far-reaching. 



14 
SCHOOL GROUNDS 
General 

The need of large, roomy school grounds can scarcely be too strongly 
urged. This most important consideration has been heretofore largely 
ignored, and in most localities is receiving far too little attention at the 
present time. The grounds should be ample in size for all demands of 
play and physical training, for all work that may be required in nature 
study and agriculture and for all essential purposes of ornamentation. 
They should be sufficient, therefore, to minister to all reasonable physical, 
utilitarian and esthetic wants of childhood. Room is needed for sports 
and games, for playground equipment and outdoor gymnasium, for a school 
garden of liberal proportions and for lawns, trees, shrubbery and flowers. 
If it is impossible to secure grounds sufficient for all these needs, the play- 
ground should be the last thing sacrificed. 1 Often in communities where 
land is cheap, the school building is tucked away in an unattractive corner 
or, in the country, is placed on some stony waste bit at the very edge of 
the highway, solely because the site is. valueless for farming. Under normal 
conditions, a country or village school should have grounds of from two acres 
upward. When practicable, a site with at least a few well-grown trees 
should be selected. 

School grounds should be thoroughly drained, should not be of marshy 
or made ground, and should not receive surface drainage from adjacent 
grounds. As has been said, they should be removed from objectionable 
noises, polluted air, and from any source of moral contamination. A sunny 
southern slope is preferred, especially for the playgrounds, which, if neces- 
sary, should be protected from prevalent winds by the building. 

Before the building is located, a landscape architect or engineer 2 
should be employed to plot the ground, determine upon the position of 
the building, playgrounds and school garden, locate the trees, walks, drives, 
shrubbery, flower beds, etc. If all improvements can not be made at 
once, there should be a definite plan kept constantly in mind so that in 
the end the grounds will form a symmetrical and pleasing whole. 



1 See page 57, Playgrounds and Physical Training. 

2 See page 72, Arrangement with State Colleges. 



56 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 57 

Playgrounds, Physical Training and Citizenship 

Play is an innate demand of the child's being, an inflexible law of his 
life. Like food and sleep, it is a prerequisite to healthy normal growth 
and development, to vigor of body and health of mind. In recognition 
of this fact, it is incumbent upon the school to provide adequate facilities 
for games and sports and to make suitable provision for their supervision 
and direction. If it is important that the parent provide for and direct 
the play of the child at home, how far more essential that the school should 
do so when it has withdrawn the child from parental restraint and authority, 
thrown him into association with other children representing all classes 
and conditions and subjected him to the influence of the mass spirit! 

Children will play; they ought to play; they should be encouraged 
in it, equipped for it, and taught how to get the most out of it. As all 
play is not equally beneficial, it is necessary to make well-considered plans 
and to exercise intelligent discrimination in order that those games and 
sports that will prove most helpful and invigorating may prevail on the 
school grounds. 

Development of soundness and vigor of body has its civic value also. 
It lays the foundation for sturdy manhood, for productive citizenship. 
The right sort of physical training throughout school life will produce 
the fiber that will bear the burden and endure the strain that the utmost 
emergency of civic life may be forced to exact. It insures a rational 
and essential preparedness for useful citizenship. 

There are additional reasons why the importance of playgrounds 
and physical training can hardly be overestimated. In the intimate and 
free association with children afforded by the tactful supervision and 
direction of outdoor sports, probably lies the teacher's greatest opportunity 
to secure the real respect and affection of her pupils. This in itself is an 
end of telling moment. 

It is also of paramount importance to make provision for supervised 
play because the playground affords best possible opportunities for 
exemplifying the fundamental principles of civics and economics and tor 
inculcating the invaluable elements of manners and morals. The play- 
ground may therefore be made a powerful factor in the mental, moral 
and civic development of the school children. Indeed, where else in the 
entire life of the young is there such exceptional opportunity to train the 
will, to beget habits of self-control, to encourage right thinking and 
courageous action, to inculcate habits of clean speech, to teach in concrete 
form such important lessons as those of courtesy, obedience, respect for 



58 THE UNIVERSITY OK THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

superiors, consideration for the unfortunate, the need of organization 
and leadership, regard for the right of others, responsibility in the per- 
formance of duties, mutual dependence, necessity and virtue of cooperation; 
in short, to exemplify in actual practice the principles of self-government. 1 

The public school must assuredly occupy this field if it is effectively 
to fulfil the mission for which it was created, namely, preparation of the 
youth for citizenship, for public service — the principle that lies at the 
basis of state control and direction of education. 

The playgrounds should be of ample size to. meet all needs of pupils 
of different ages and both sexes, and the equipment necessary to insure 
desired results should be freely provided. In rural schools the actual 
cost of equipment need be only nominal as the necessary material is for 
the most part readily available. Technical skill and expert labor are 
not required. Intelligent planning, persistent endeavor and helpful co- 
operation will overcome all difficulties. 

School Grounds and Nature Study 

In all our public schools in country, village and city, nature study 
is regarded as a subject of such importance that it finds a prominent place 
in the course of study. But to teach nature study successfully within 
the four walls of the schoolroom is like teaching a child to swim without 
water. No study of nature is successful that does not lead to a love of 
nature. Knowledge of her precedes and begets this love. To know her 
one must be brought into frequent association with her in her attractive 
forms and moods, must be led into intimate and sympathetic relationship 
with her, must be made to see, hear, feel and understand her. 

In this subject, the recitation bench and the printed page fail to afford 
requisite inspiration and instruction. The trees, forests and meadows, 
the hills, valleys and waterways, the insect world, swimming fish and 
flying fowl, the heavens in ever changing dress to meet all kinds of wind 
and weather — these are the open books that invite observation and 
study, that inspire, instruct and educate; these are the sources of real 
knowledge and genuine love of nature. These are the sources of first 
approach both for inspiration and information. 

Nature study, therefore, should be an outdoor study; to be successful, 
it must be. The school grounds should be an outdoor laboratory, the place 
for experimentation, for individual laboratory practice. Here pupils 

1 "A fundamental condition for the permanent development of a free people is that they shall in childhood 
learn to govern themselves. Self-government is to be learned as an experience rather than taught as a theory. 
Hence, in a permanent democracy, adequate playgrounds for all the children are a necessity." Gulick, Modern 
SchoolhouseSy p. 22. 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 59 

can be taught how to beautify and improve the school grounds, here they 
can be instructed in the many steps and processes that must be adopted 
if nature is to have an opportunity to exemplify her powers and robe herself 
in pleasing forms and colors. Here in actual practice pupils can be taught 
to prepare the soil for grass, for trees, shrubs and vines, for flowers and 
foliage plants, annuals and perennials. Here they can be taught to make 
the sowings and plantings and to care for them at the various stages ot 
development and growth. Here they can be trained in the preparation 
and care of lawns and in best methods of beautifying them with shade 
and ornamental trees, with beds of flowers, shrubbery and foliage plants- 
Here they can receive practice in making school gardens which by intelli- 
gent study and planning may be made to represent in pleasing combination 
both beauty and utility, an assemblage of all plants commonly used either 
for food production or for flowers and foliage — a garden that will have 
enduring yet ever changing beauty and value alike through seedtime and 
harvest, and be a place of interest and attraction throughout the entire 
year. Here in beautifying and adorning the school grounds, the pupil 
can learn how to appreciate and imitate nature in her graceful curves, 
pleasing combinations and harmonious blending of colors. Here also 
will be found frequent opportunity for the study of bird and insect life. 
Here can be assembled for special study much of the fauna and flora ot 
the locality and here can be taught concretely the best methods of pro- 
tecting the useful and of destroying the hurtful both in animal and plant 
life. 

If the subject can be thus taught through actual observation and 
individual experimentation, in the spirit and with the understanding, 
what a transformation will be brought in our school grounds! What an 
inspiring, helpful influence it will exert upon the lives of the pupils! What 
a stimulating effect it will have upon the homes! What an interest will 
be aroused for the country and life in the open! Beyond all this are the 
added opportunities of peculiar value for molding the lives and developing 
the characters of the young for which the school assumes so great 
a responsibility- 
General Duties of School Districts in Respect to Buildings and Grounds 

Old buildings — remodeled or replaced. Old buildings that are too 
good to be abandoned should be promptly brought into conformity with 
the state standards. This is the irreducible minimum to which all pupils 
of the State are entitled be they of city, village or country. As these 
statutory standards are for the protection of all, they must be administered 



60 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

in like manner to serve all. They are expressed in such definite and 
unmistakable terms as to involve an application of mathematics rather 
than an expression of opinion. The duty of the district and the response 
bility of the Department are thereby made plain and conclusive. School 
buildings must provide 15 square feet of floor surface and 200 cubic feet 
of air space to each pupil, must furnish properly arranged windows equal 
in area to one-fifth of the floor area, and a heating and ventilating system 
that will supply 30 cubic feet of fresh air a minute for each pupil and a 
minimum temperature of 68 degrees in zero weather. In short, by special 
enactment the State makes it incumbent upon the district to provide those 
essential facilities needful for the comfort and health of the pupils and for 
protection from fire. 

It is commonly impracticable, often impossible, and usually poor 
economy to remodel a building of twenty or more years' standing. Again 
and again both through comparative estimates and by actual construc- 
tion, it has been demonstrated that the cost of modernizing an old build- 
ing is surprisingly great, and the results in many ways are commonly 
disappointing. In this connection, it may be pertinent to say that it should 
always be the aim to make a school building architecturally pleasing, to 
clothe it within and without in cheerful and appropriate colors, to give it 
such graceful lines and touches of adornment that it will produce an agree- 
able and satisfied feeling as one views the building as a whole. 

Showy effects and an aggregation of angles and projections should 
be scrupulously avoided. Through intelligent planning and skilful work- 
manship, it is at times surprising what a complete and gratifying trans- 
formation can be wrought in an old building. If an old schoolhouse is not 
worthy of such treatment or can not be made attractive in appearance, 
this in itself is a substantial if not sufficient reason for replacing the building 
instead of attempting to remodel it. 

While the first concern should be to make the schoolhouse through- 
out comfortable and sanitary and safe from fire, a further duty, secondary 
only in the sense that care of the body prepares for the nurture and develop- 
ment of the mind and of the soul life, requires that the school home be 
made an object lesson of good taste, pleasing effects and attractive sur- 
roundings — as nearly as may be a model place for the stimulation of exem- 
plary feelings and for the inculcation of right thoughts and high ideals. 
Its whole atmosphere should be uplifting. This is essential in training for 
citizenship, the foundation principle upon which the public school system 
rests. Children are inevitably influenced by their environment. Subtle 
and unconscious though this influence may be at times, it is none the less 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 6l 

positive, deep-seated and far-reaching in its effects. The schoolhouse and 
the school grounds where the children pass so many of the best hours of 
the day through the most impressionable years should therefore be an 
embodiment of all that is essential to development of character and ennoble- 
ment of life in so far as environment may be able to contribute in that 
direction. 

General duties of districts. It ought to be the aim and the pride of 
every community to make the school home of the many more inviting, 
healthful and inspiring than the home of any. All children are entitled 
to this consideration because it is for the common good and because all 
ought to enjoy equal rights and opportunities. The children from homes 
of want and barrenness are in especial need of the elevating, refining and 
uplifting influence of such surroundings to develop and enrich their lives, 
to stimulate right thinking and acting, to contribute to the formation of 
good habits and strong characters. Children from homes of refinement 
and abundance are certainly entitled to as elevating surroundings in the 
school as they are obliged to leave at home to attend school. 

The fact that children are required to attend school, that neither they 
nor their parents have any option in the matter, places the State in loco 
parentis while the children are in school. As wards of the State, therefore, 
they are not only entitled to be assured adequate floor space, air space, 
light heat and pure air, but also to be surrounded by all those influences 
and agencies essential to the development of healthy, vigorous bodies, 
refined, cultivated minds, good habits and pure morals. The interests ot 
the child and the interests of the State are alike concerned. The school 
grounds, therefore, as well as the schoolhouse should be selected, planned 
and developed with unerring purpose and indomitable perseverance to 
minister to these purposes and accomplish these ends. Compulsory edu- 
cation must cease to be what it so frequently has been and often in effect 
still is, especially in rural districts, confinement in an ugly, forbidding hovel, 
banishment to an unsightly, neglected bit of land, deprivation of oppor- 
tunity for healthful play and invigorating sport, Nature's priceless boon 
to the growing child. 

Much remains to be done in the improvement of school buildings but 
still more remains to be done in the improvement of school grounds. Com- 
paratively little attention has hitherto been given to the proper selection, 
intelligent development and systematic care of grounds in country, village 
and city. This is particularly to be regretted in the rural districts where 
such favorable opportunities are afforded and the educational need is so 
great by reason of its influence in the betterment of rural conditions and 



< >- THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

in inducing an appreciation and love of country life. Often grounds pos- 
sessing rare possibilities show little or no trace of any attempt to beautify 
them. Rarely are they laid out and improved in accordance with a well- 
defined landscape design or any system at all. 

This situation is not chargeable to premeditated neglect or to inten- 
tional indifference to the welfare of the children, but rather to want of 
appreciation of the importance of such improvements, to lack of knowl- 
edge of right methods of procedure to bring them into being, and to the 
natural tendency to keep to one's habits, particularly if the old ways are 
easy and the new ways appear difficult. As a result, the dominating aim 
and idea in actual practice has been to secure merely a location for the 
building at a nominal cost without thought or consideration for the physical 
or esthetic needs of children, without any attempt to provide opportunity 
for the development of healthy bodies or of a love for Nature and Nature's 
God through pleasing and uplifting surroundings. These essential char- 
acteristics which past generations have so largely ignored and the present 
generation is only beginning to give ear to, future generations will inevit- 
ably insist upon as fundamental. In this forward movement, it is the duty 
of the Empire State to lead, as its educational system peculiarly fits it to do. 

Outline of plan of procedure. The preceding sections of this chapter 
conclusively show the wisdom and necessity of inaugurating in a thorough, 
systematic manner a statewide campaign for the improvement of school 
grounds and of prosecuting it with vigor and persistence. In such an 
undertaking, the State itself has an important and responsible part to 
perform, namely, to point out the way in which the desired betterment 
can be made at an expense that will not prove burdensome even to the 
weakest districts, and also to do whatever may be needful to assist in plan- 
ning the improvements and in making them effective. Many districts are 
so favorably circumstanced that they will be readily able to plot and beau- 
tify their grounds unaided by the State and should be encouraged to do so, 
but many others will need help, some of them much, and it is to meet their 
needs especially that a general plan for giving assistance has been formu- 
lated, which, embodying as it does the promised cooperation of the State 
College of Agriculture at Cornell University and the State College of 
Forestry at Syracuse University, it is believed will prove effectual. An 
outline of this plan of cooperation and an explanation of the method of 
procedure to procure needed assistance will be furnished on application. 



15 
BIBLIOGRAPHY ON SCHOOLHOUSES 

This select list on school architecture, school grounds and equipment 
includes, with a few exceptions, only the most important and most readily 
accessible American books and periodical material published within the 
last ten years; a few recent English titles have been included. For a more 
complete record of the literature of this subject, consult the annual Bibli- 
ography of Education, compiled under the direction of Mr J. I. Wyer jr, 
Director of the New York State Library, published from 1899 to 1906 in 
the Educational Review, and for 1907 by the United States Bureau of 
Education. Since 1908 this work has been undertaken by the Bureau of 
Education, and beginning with January 1, 191 2 the bureau has issued a 
monthly list, which is of great service in keeping up with current edu- 
cational literature. Bibliographies to be found in the books on this list 
are noted. 

Albany, N. Y. High school building. Illus. (In Architecture & Building, 45:501-3 

Dec. 1913) 

New York State Normal School. Illus. plans. (In Brickbuilder, v. 19 

Jan. 1910) 
American Academy of Medicine. Conservation of school children. 191 2. Amer. 

Academy of Medicine. #5 
American Architect. Modern school houses. 1910. Amer. Architect $7.50 
Arnold, E. H. Importance of the school yard for the physical well-being of school children. 

(In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 1905, p. 756-60) 
Artesia, Cal. Grammar school. Illus. plan. (In Brickbuilder, v 21. Aug i'yi2i 
Ayres, L. P. Fire protection in public schools. 1913. Russell Sage Foundation. Pap. 10c 

Open-air schools. 1913. Russell Sage Foundation. Pap. 10c 

Open-air schools. 1910. Doubled ay #1.20 

Baldwin, E. C. Terminology of school building construction ami repairs. (In Jour, of 

Ed.. 81:679-80, June 24, 1915) 
Baldwin, W. A. School gardens. (In Education, 26:447) 
Baldv/in, William James. The ventilation of the schoolroom. 46p. 1901. N. Y. 

The author, 107 W. 17th st. )si 

Author an expert consulting engineer. 
Baltimore Co. Md. Maryland school for blind. Illus. plans. (In Brickbuilder, v. 22, 

Dec. 1 9 1 3 ) 
Barnard, H: School architecture. Bardeen $1.50 
Barry, W: F. Hygiene of the school room. 191 1. Silver $1.50 

63 



64 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Bass, F: Experiment in school ventilation with reduced air supply through individual 

ducts; with discussion. Illus. (In Amer. Soc. of Heating and Ventilating Engineers, 

19:328-60, 1913) 
Becht, J. G. Report on playgrounds. (In Pa. School Jour., Nov. 1912, 61:218-21) 
Bennett, H. C. School gardens. (In Booklover's Mag., 5:469; Review of Reviews (N. Y.), 

29:439) 
Bigelow, Maurice A. Gardens, school; gardens for children. (In Cyclopedia of Education; 

ed. by Paul Monroe. 3:10-12, 1903-) 

" References " include n recent titles on this subject. 
Boston. School committee. Report of commission of oculists and electricians on the 

artificial lighting and color schemes of school buildings. Bost. 1907. 20p. (Boston 

school documents 1907, no. 14.) 
Nathan Hale primary, and Bishop Cheverus grammar schools. Illus. plan. 

(In Brickbuilder, 18:221-25, Nov. 1909) 

Normal and Latin school group. Illus. plans. (In Brickbuilder, v. 17, 



March 1908) 
Briggs, Warren Richard. American school buildings: being a treatise upon and designs 

for the construction of school buildings. . . . N. Y. Wiley, 1899. 4iip. pi. plans. $4 
Bright, Orville T. School gardens, city school yards, and the surroundings of rural schools. 

(In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 1903, p. 77-85) 
Brookline, Mass. Edward Devotion school, Brookline Mass., and Vose school, Milton, 

Mass., views and plans. (In Brickbuilder, 24: pi. 19-24, Feb. 1915) 

Winsor school. Illus. plans. (In Brickbuilder, v. 20, Jan. 191 1) 

Brown, John Franklin. Material equipment. (In his American high school, p. 177-92, 

1909) Bibliography p. 189-92. Macmillan $1.40 
Bruce, W: C. comp. Grade school buildings. 1914. Bruce Pub. Co., Milwaukee, 

Wis. $3.50 

High school buildings. 1913. Amer. School Board Jour. $2.50 

Bruce, William George, comp. School architecture; a handy manual for the use of 

architects and school authorities; 4th ed. Milwaukee, Johnson Service Co. [CI910.] 

289P. 75c 
Buck, W. Pictures in the public schools. (In Municipal Affairs, 6:189-97, June 1902) 
Buffalo, N. Y. Nichols School building. Illus. plan. (In Brickbuilder, v. 20, Sept. 191 1) 
Burnham, W. H. Ideal school houses. (In World's Work, 2:866-71, June 1901) 
Burrage, Severance, & Bailey, Henry Turner. School sanitation and decoration: a practical 

study of health and beauty in their relations to the public schools. Bost. Heath, 

[C1899.] 224P. Illus.pl. $1.5011 
California. Department of public instruction, Sacramento. California school house for 

$500; out-door school houses for Fresno. 1913. 9p. Illus. 
Caproni, P. P. Suggestions for interior decorations of schools. 1909. Pap. 25c 
Carpenter, Rolla Clinton. Heating and ventilating buildings: a manual for heating 

engineers and architects; 5th ed. rev. and enl. N. Y. Wiley, 1910. 562p. $4 

Literature and references, p. 493-95. 

Carroll, C. F. What should be the features of a modern elementary school building? 

(In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 1903, p. 235-40) 
Chelsea, Mass. St Rose's school. Illus. plan. (In Brickbuilder, v. 21, Aug. 1912) 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 65 

Chicago. Bernard Moos school. Illus. plan; Tilton school. (In Brickbuilder, 18:225-26, 
Nov. 1909; Brickbuilder, 18:229) 

Chicago schools. School houses, portable. Portable school houses in Chicago. Illus. 
diagrams. (Building Age, 37:37-40, May 1 9 1 5 ) 

- Schools — heating and ventilation. Chicago ventilation committee first 
report. Illus. (In Metal Work, 83:632-35+, April 30, 1915) 

Clapp, H. L. School gardens. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 1903, p. 85-88) 

Cox, L. Cottage plans for schools of Glendale, Arizona. (In Jour, of Ed., 81:124-25, 
Feb. 4, 1915) 

Clay, Felix. Modern school buildings, elementary and secondary; a treatise on the plan- 
ning, arrangement and fitting of day and boarding schools; 2d ed. rev. and enl. Lond. 
Batsford, 1906. 555p. Illus. plans, diagrams. 

Bibliography of works on schools and their architecture, pref. p. 19-25. 

The 1903 edition was imported by Scribner, price #10; the English price of the 2d ed. is 25s n. 

Craftsman. Two Craftsman country school-houses. (In Craftsman, 20:412-16, Julv 

1911) 
Crawshaw, F. D. High school rooms and manual training equipment. Illus. plans. 

(In Manual Training, 9:422-34, June 1908) 
Croly, H. Work of Kilham and Hopkins, architects of Boston. Illus. (In Architectural 

Record, 31:98-110, Feb. 1912) 
Crowley, Ralph H. (The) school building. (In bis Hygiene of school life. 1910. 

p. 292-330) Methuen, Lond. 3/6 n. 
Curtis, H. S. Reorganized school playground. (In U. S. Bureau of Educ. Bui. 40, 

p. 1-28, 1913) 
Dartmouth College. Gymnasium. Hanover, N. H., designs. (In Brickbuilder. v. 24, 

pi. 54—55, April 1915) 
Davis, Seymour. Recent progress in school architecture. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 

1905, p. 836-42) 

Discussion by E. H. Arnold, p. 842-43. 

Dresslar, Fletcher B. American school houses. Wash. Gov't Print. Office, 191 1. I33p. 
pi. plans. (In U. S. Bureau of Ed. Bui. 5, whole no. 444. 19 10). Sup't of Docu- 
ments 75c 

References on school architecture and sanitation, p. 107-10. 

School hygiene. The Macmillan Co. New York 

Architecture, school. (In Cyclopedia of education; ed. by Paul Monroe. 

1911. v. 1, p. 183-96) 

Bibliography listing 21 titles of separate books, S special articles, periodicals and other matetial. 1 column 
in length. 

Hygiene of rural schools. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 1912, p. 110^-10) 
Rural school houses and grounds. Illus. Pap. (In U. S. Bureau of Ed. 



Bui. 1914, 12, p. 1-162, 1914) Sup't of documents. 50c 
Dutton, Samuel Train, & Snedden, David. (The) school house: its construction and 
adaptation. (In their Administration of public education in the United States. 1908. 
p. 172-207) Macmillan. $1.75 n 

References at ends of chapters, p. 186, 207. 

Eliot, C: W. Full utilization of a public school plant. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 
1903, p. 241-47) 



66 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Elliott, E: C. Buildings and sites: legislation 1908-9. (In U. S. Bureau of Ed. Bui. 2, 

p. 98-108, 1910) 

• Health regulations: legislation. 1908-9. (In U. S. Bureau of Ed. Bui. 2, 

p. 157-62, 1910) 
Ely School. Misses Ely school, Greenwich, Conn. Illus. plans. (In Brickbuilder, v. 16, 

Dec. 1907) 
Emerson, P. Gardens at school. (In Jour, of Ed., 77:374, April 3, 1913) 
Evans, I.N. Recirculation of air for schools. (In Heating and Ventilating Mag., 11:46-53, 

June 1914) 
Evans, M. O. jr. School and house gardening in Portland, Ore., season of 1914. Illus. 

(In Nature Study, 11:47-52, Feb. 191 5) 
Frost, W. D. & Armstrong, V. A. Bacteriological tests of methods of cleaning. (In Nat. 

Educ. Assn. Proc. 191 1, p. 985-90) 
Gerhard, W. P. School architecture and hygiene, bibliography. (In Amer. Architect, 

88:14) 
Gray, M. R. Education of children in the school gardens of Los Angeles. (In Craftsman, 

24:472-79, Aug. 1913) 
Haddon, R. W. Modern American schoolhouses. Illus. plans. (In Architectural Record, 

36:244-63, Sept. 1914) 
Modern two-room school-house: a superstructure of cement brick on a 

foundation of concrete blocks. Illus. plans. (In Building Age, 36:29-32, Oct. 1914) 
School houses planned with reference to the newer educational activities. 



Plans. (In Architectural Record, 36:511-23, Dec. 1914) 
Hall, Mrs H. J. Beautifying of school grounds. (In Chautauquan, 38:276) 
Halliday, T. W. Electric school building of Rupert, Idaho. Illus. plan. (In Electrical 

World, 63:1151-53, May 23, 1914) 
Hamlin, L. A. How school gardens put new civic spirit into South Chicago. Illus. (In 

Survey, 24:18-24, April 2, 1910) 
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p. 402-4) 
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Diagrams, plans. (In Heating and Ventilating Mag., 11:37-46, June 1914) 
Hollister, Horace Adelbert. Public school buildings and their equipment, with special 

reference to high schools. Urbana, 111. 1909. 37p. Illus. plans. (In Univ. of 

Illinois, School of Ed. Bui. 1) 

References, p. 37. 

Hope, E. W. & Browne, E. A. Manual of school hygiene. 1907. Putnam $1 
Hough, H. Planting the school yard. Illus. (In Craftsman, 22:650-56, Sept. 1912) 
Hutt, H. L. Improvement of school grounds. Toronto, 1908 
Hyatt, E. School architecture and school improvement. 1909. Pap. gratis. California 

department of public instruction, Sacramento 
Hyatt, E: Schoolhouse for $500. (In Jour, of Ed., 78:234, Sept. 11, 1913) 
Illinois. Public instruction department. The one-room country schools in Illinois. 1908. 

32p. Illus. plans. (Circular 28) 
Prepared by V. J. Hoffman. 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 67 

School buildings. (In 27th biennial report of the superintendent of public 
instruction of the state of Illinois, July I, 1906 -June 30, 1908. F. G. Blair, Sup't. 
Springfield, 1908. p. 54-72) 

Contains plans and specifications of one-room buildings; discussions of the subjects of heating, lighting 
and ventilation. • 

Illuminating Engineer (magazine). Interim report on daylight illumination of schools. 

(In Illuminating Engineer, 7:559-68, July 1914) 
Short history of investigations on the natural lighting of schools. (In Illu- 
minating Engineer, 7:27-30, Jan. 1 9 1 4 ) 
Indiana. Public instruction department. School sanitation and architecture. (In 24th 

biennial report of the state superintendent of public instruction for the school years ending 

July 31, 1907 and July 31, 1908. F. A. Cotton, Sup't. Indianapolis, 1908. p. 529-78) 
Ingold, J. M. Heating, lighting, and ventilating ot school buildings. (In Nat. Educ. 

Assn. Proc. 1914. p. 779-85) 
Ittner, William B. School architecture. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 190S, p. 1065-71) 

School architecture. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 1912, p. 1207-2;' 

Discussion by L. N. Hines, p. 1222-24. 
Jenkins, W. H. New type of rural schoolhouse. Illus. (In Craftsman, 20:212-15, 

May 1911) 
Johnson, J. W. Right kind of a schoolhouse. Illus. (In Jour, of Ed., 77:464, April 

24, 1913) 
Judd, Z. Cultivating the school grounds in Wake co.. North Carolina. Illus. (In U. S. 

Bureau of Ed. Bui. 28, p. 1-12, 1912) 
Kansas. Public instruction department. School buildings, school grounds and their 

improvement. Topeka, 191 1. HSp. Illus. plans. 

Issued by E. T. Fairchild, state supetintendent of public instruction. 
Kentucky. Education department. School architecture. Frankfort, 1910. 87p.' PI. 

plans. (Bulletin, v. 3, no. 11, Sept. 1910) 
Prepared by I . W. Vinson. 

Kenyon, Walter J. Interior decoration of schools. (In School Review, Nov. 1906, v. 14, 

P- 6 2S-34) 

Kilham, W. H. Hygienic construction of school houses horn an architect's standpoint. 
(In. Jour, of Ed., 78:298-99, September 25, 1913) 

Modern school-house; corridors and stairways. Illus. plans. (In Brick- 
builder, 24:39-42, Feb. 1915; 24:93-98, April 191 5; 24:3-8, Jan. 191 5; 24:59-62, March 
1 g 1 5 ) 

King, I. School garden, its educational and social value. Bibliography. (In his " Social 
aspects of education," p. 129-43) 

Lyster, Robert A. The school building. (In his School hygiene; 2d ed. 191 1. p. 1-103) 
W. B. Clive, Lond. 3/6 

McCann, F. S. Standard details of heating and ventilating work. Diagrams, plans. 
(In Metal Work, 81:31-33, 125-26, 234-35, 302-3, 363-64, 421 24, 4^4, 511, 606-7; 
82:273-74, 46°> 706-7; 83:149-50, 281-82, Jan. 2, 16, Feb. 6, 20, March 6, 20, April 
3-10, May I, Sept. 4, Oct. 2, Nov. 27, 1914; Jan. 22, Feb. l<;, 1915) 

Madison, Wis. High school. Illus. plan. (In Brickbuilder, 18:83, April 1909) 

Maiden, Mass. C. A: Daniels school. Illus. plan. (In Brickbuilder, v. 17, 190s ) 

Martin, G:H. School hygiene in Massachusetts. 1909. Mass. state board of education. 



68 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Massachusetts. Three school houses. Illus. plan. (In Brickbuilder, 18:243-47, Dec. 

1909) 
Maxwell, W: H. Economical use of school buildings. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 

1910, p. 326-36) 
Metal Work (magazine). Heating and ventilating a school house. Illus. plans. (In 

Metal Work, 82:633-36. Nov. 13, 1914) 
Michigan. Public instruction, department of. Lansing. Manual of school room equip- 
ment, improvement and construction. 1914 
— School architecture. 1910. Michigan department of public instruction. 

Lansing 
Michigan University. Central generating systems for University of Michigan. Illus. 

plans. (In Electrical World, 65:646-51, March 13, 1915) 
Mills, Wilbur T. Innovations in school architecture. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 

1908, p. 1071-77) 
Minnesota. Minnesota standard schools. (In Jour, of Ed., 81:40, Jan. 14, 1915) 
Minnesota, department of public instruction. Heating and ventilation of small school 

houses. 1908. Minn, dep't of public instruction, St Paul 
New school buildings. 1910. S. A. Challman, main engineering building, 

University of Minn. Minneapolis 

Modern school houses; being a series of authoritative articles on planning, sanitation, 
heating and ventilation, by A. D. F. Hamlin, C. B. J. Snyder and others. 1910. 61 p 
Illus. pi. plans. N. Y. Swetland Pub. Co. £7.50 
Moore, Joseph A. The school house; its heating and ventilation, [Bost. Pub. by the 

author], 1905. 204P. 

Author inspector of public buildings in Massachusetts for many years. 

Morrison, Gilbert B. School architecture and hygiene. N. Y. Amer. Bk. Co. 1910 
56p. (Monographs on education in the United States, ed. by N. M. Butler, 9.) Price 
of each monograph 20c. 

Bibliography of schoolhouse architecture and sanitation, p. 53-56. 

New Castle, Pa. High school. Illus. plan. (In Architecture, v. 51, April 1908) 

New York. New York chapter on school house heating and ventilation. Plan. (In 

Heating and Ventilating Mag., 11:48-50, April 1914) 
New York City. St Agatha school. Illus. plan. (In Brickbuilder, v. 17, Nov. 1908) 

Stuyvesant high school. Illus. plan. (In Architecture, v. 51, Jan. 1908) 

Washington Irving high school. Illus. (In Architecture and Building, 

45:190-93, May 1913) 
Newark, N. J. Central commercial and manual training high school. Illus. plan. (In 

Architecture and Building, 44 :45i-s6, Nov. 1912; Brickbuilder, 21 :2i2-i5, August 1912) 

Cleveland school. Illus. plan. (In Brickbuilder, v. 22, April 1913) 

Heating and ventilating equipment of the Newark normal school. Illus. 

plans. (In Heating and Ventilating Mag., 10:21-26, May 1913) 
Normal school. Illus. plans. (In Architecture and Building, 45:368-71, 

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Ridge school. Illus. plans. (In Brickbuilder. v. 22: Sept. 1913) 

Newsholme, A. School hygiene. Heath 75c, pap. 25c 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 69 

Nida, W: L. Lighting of school rooms. Illus. (In Good Housekeeping, 51:263-67, 

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Save the children's eyes. (In Good Housekeeping, 53:365-68, Sept. 191 1) 

North Carolina. Public instruction, dep't of. Raleigh. Plans for public school houses; 

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forms of specifications and agreements. Toronto, L. K. Cameron 1909. H9p. Illus. 

plans 

Chiefly plans. 

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Osborn, H. B. Improvement of rural school grounds and interiors. Illus. (In Education, 
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Palliser & Co. Common-sense school architecture. Ogilvie. $1 

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Parker, J. M. Improved school grounds. (In Outlook, 72:218) 

Parker, W. H. School buildings. 191 2. Whitaker & Ray-Wiggin Co. £1 

Parsons, C. H. Relation of state legislation to modern school building. (In Nat. Educ. 
Assn. Proc. 1901, p. 815-20) 

School house architecture. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 1900, p. 610-18) 

Parsons, Samuel. Landscape surroundings for academic buildings. (In American Archi- 
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Patton, N. S. Present day tendencies of school architecture. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. 
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Porter, C: School hygiene and the laws of health. Longmans. 1906. #1.25 

Poughkeepsie, N. Y. Vassar college. Auditorium building. Illus. plans. (In Brick- 
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Pittsburgh, Pa. Watt school. Independent air ducts in school work: mechanical equip- 
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Mag., 11:17-25, April 1914) 

Reese, C. Chicago's school buildings. Illus. (In Good Housekeeping, 50:. 208-15, 
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Cincinnati schools. Illus. (In Good Housekeeping, 50:610-15, May 1910) 

St Louis school buildings. Illus. (In Good Housekeeping, 50:485-93, 

April 1910) 

Rice, Mrs I. L. Quiet zones for schools. (In Forum, 46:731-42, Dec. 1911) 

Roorbach, E. J. Practical school system of Los Angeles. Illus. (In Craftsman, 22 : 640-49, 
Sept. 1912) 

Rowe, Stuart H. The lighting of school rooms: a manual for school boards, architects, 
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Ryan, W. C. jr. School hygiene: a report of the fourth international congress of school 
hygiene. Pap. 1913. U. S. Bureau of Ed. 

St Louis school buildings. Illus. (In Architectural Record, 23:136-53, Feb. 1908) 



70 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

St Louis,^Mo. Washington university. Washington University. Illus. plans. (In 

Architectural Record, 37:64-75, Jan. 1915) 
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(In Architectural Record, 37:88-90, Jan. 1915) 
San Francisco, Cal. Girls' high school. Illus. plan. (In Brickbuilder, 21:273-76, 

Oct. 1912) 
School Review. June 1903. 

This issue is devoted to school architecture, and contains the following articles: 
Evolution of the little red school house, by Walter Sargent, p. 435-55 
High school architecture in the city of New York, by G. W. Wharton, p. 456-85 
New era in the public school of St Louis, by C. M. Woodward, p. 486-94 
New building of the Syracuse high school, by W. K. Wickes. p. 495-508 
Modern high school building, by W. E. Hatch, p. 509-20 
Shaw, Edward R. School hygiene. N. Y. iMacmillan, 1901, 1911. 260 p. pi. diagram, 
plans. (Teachers' professional library.) Bibliography, p. 253-55 

Chapters on school building, grounds, equipment, sanitation and ventilation. 

Shepherd, J. W. Experiments on the ventilation of a school room; review of the work 

and future plans of the Chicago ventilation commission. (In Heating & Ventilating 

Mag., 10:24-32, Dec. 1913) 
Simpson, J: T. Concrete school houses vs. firetraps. 1911. Amer. Portland Cement Co. 
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p. 89-96) 
Snyder, C. B. J. Needed legislation in school architecture. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 

1905, p. 843-49) 

Discussion by J. A. Hartpence, p. 849-51. 

Spencer, J. W. Improvement of school grounds. (In Chautauquan, 34:424) 

Squires, F. New development of the hollow square in school house planning. Illus. plans. 

(In Architecture and Building, 43:361-71, Sept. 1913) 
Standish, 1 Myles. The artificial[illumination of school rooms. (In Ophthalmology, Oct. 

1908, 5:1-11) 
Stebbins, C. A. Potentiality of the school garden. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 191 1, 

_P- " 31-37 ) 

Sturgis, R. C. Problems in school planning. (In Brickbuilder, 20:99-102, May 191 1) 

Watertown, Mass. Perkins institute and Massachusetts school for the blind. 

Illus. plans. (In Brickbuilder, 22:154-58, July 1913) 

Todd, J: B. Fresh air in school rooms: cloth window screens that let in filtered air without 
drafts. Diagram. (In Scientific Amer. Supplement, 77:118-19, Feb. 21, 1914) 

Trenton, N. J. School of industrial arts. Illus. plans. (In Brickbuilder, v. 20, July 191 1) 

Trumbauer, Horace. Architect. Seaside branch of Widener memorial school, Longport, 
N. J., views and plans. (In Brickbuilder, v. 23, pi. 49-51, April 1914) 

United States Bureau of Education. Sanitary school houses: legal requirements in Indiana 
and Ohio. Pap. 1913. U. S. Bureau of Ed. 

United States School House Commission. Report upon a general plan for the consoli- 
dation of public schools in the District of Columbia. Wash. Gov't Print. Office. 1908. 
Sop. pi. plans. U. S. 60th Congress, 1st session, Senate document 338 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS Jl 

Van Pelt, J: R. Architecture of open air schools. (In Heating & Ventilating Mag., 

10:41-42, September 1913) 
Waggoner, E. A. Los Angeles school gardens. (In Jour, of Ed., 81:214-16, Feb. 25, 1915) 
Washington, D. C. H: D. Cooke school. Illus. plan. (In Brickbuilder, 18:235, Nov. 

1909) 
Wheelwright, E. M. American buildings. Illus. plan. (In Brickbuilder, 6:244-47) 
Edmund March. School architecture. Bost. Rogers & Manson, 1902. 

324P. Illus. 
Whipple, G. M. Questions in school hygiene. 1909. Bardeen 60c 
Wight, P. B. Public school architecture at Chicago. Illus. (In Architectural Record, 

27:494-512, June 1910) 
Winslow, C. E. A. School ventilation in New York City. (In Heating & Ventilating 

Mag., 10:20-28, Sept. 1913) 
Wisconsin. Education department. The school beautiful, by Maud Barnett. Madison, 

Democrat Printing Co. 94P. Illus. plans, 1907 

Minute and practical suggestions and directions for securing more attractive and healthful school build- 
ings and grounds. Plans and pictures. 

Issued by C. F. Cary, state superintendent. 
Wood, T: D. Health problems in education. (In U. S. Bureau of Ed. Current edu- 
cational topics, no. 3.) Pap. 191 2. U. S. Bureau of Ed., 5c. Sup't of documents 



IMPROVEMENT OF SCHOOL GROUNDS. 

The following letter was issued for a twofold purpose: (i) to direct 
the attention of school officials to the importance of initiating a wel'- 
conceived plan for the systematic improvement and adornment of school 
grounds, and (2) to outline a method whereby the desired end could be 
readily achieved. 

April 1, 1 91 6 
To Principals and Superintendents : 

I am pleased to find that you are interested in the improvement of school grounds, 
for it is unquestionably a matter of importance both to the school and to the home. Inas- 
much as children are required to attend school, they are not only entitled to be housed 
in a building that is comfortable and sanitary but also to be placed in an environment 
that will be pleasant, helpful and uplifting. Every community has a duty to perform 
in this direction, and it should take interest and pride in the doing of it. 

We are this year initiating a movement for the general improvement of school grounds 
throughout the State. We are particularly anxious just now to locate the districts where 
conditions are most favorable for this work and to cooperate with them in the endeavor 
to make their grounds worthy object lessons to all surrounding districts. We have a 
number of cases in process of development, and within a short time confidently expect 
to have such undertakings under way in every section of the State. 

The first step is to have some competent person prepare a suitable and pleasing design 
for the general, systematic betterment and beautifying of the grounds. It is often, if 
not commonly, impracticable and undesirable for a school to make all needed improve- 
ments at one time, but it is of utmost importance to have a definite and comprehensive 
plan so that when completed, the grounds will be pleasing and symmetrical in general 
appearance and effect. A school should carry out at least a part of the plan each year, 
but only so much of it as can be well done and properly cared for. 

Inasmuch as many if not most schools will be unable, at least at the outset, to employ 
the services of professional landscape architects, arrangements have been made to aid schools 
that present an application for such assistance. The State College of Agriculture at Cor- 
nell University and the State College of Forestry at Syracuse University have both evi- 
denced deep interest in this work heretofore and have already done much to educate public 
sentiment. These state institutions have given us full assurance of their cooperation in 
the present undertaking, and we are fortunate in being able to rely upon them for this 
much-needed assistance. 

You will greatly assist us by giving a general description of the grounds and by stating 
the amount of money, if any, that can be assured for field work. If no money is available 
for this purpose, such assistance as may be possible will be freely given through correspond- 
ence, suggestive sketches and other aids. Where personal visitation is sought, it will be 
the aim to group cases in such a way as to reduce expenses to a minimum. 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 73 

In either case, application for assistance should be made to the State Education 
Department through city, village or district superintendents of schools, as the case may be. 
This Department will supply the necessary information and material for making the pre- 
liminary sketches and will in general look after the preliminary work. When the cases 
are sufficiently developed, plans for laying out the grounds and for plantings will be pre- 
pared in accordance with such arrangements as may be made and when completed will 
be returned through this Department to the local school authorities. By proceeding in 
this way, the Department will be able to follow up these cases and use its good offices in 
seeing that the improvements are intelligently and effectively carried out, and that the 
grounds subsequently are properly cared for. 

Doubtless many schools can be well served by home nurseries and dealers, but for the 
benefit of others, it is gratifying to announce that the State College of Forestry, Syracuse, 
will furnish to the schools, trees and shrubs at actual cost of production, plus transportation. 1 
The following publications will be found helpful and may be had upon application: 
The Home Grounds, by E. G. Davis and R. W. Curtis. College of Agricul- 
ture, Cornell University. 
Systematic Street Tree Planting, by H. R. Francis. College of Forestry, Syra- 
cuse University. 
School Buildings and Grounds. The University of the State of New York. 
Arbor Day Manual, 1913. Ornamental Trees and Shrubs. The University of 

the State of New York. 
Tree Planting on Rural School Grounds 
Lawn Soils and Lawns 
The School Garden 
Annual Flowering Plants 

Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 
Slides and hand photographs of school grounds, including lawns, playgrounds and 
school gardens, will be furnished by the Visual Instruction Division. 

Do not hesitate to call upon the Department for any service it can render. It will 
be a pleasure to assist you in every possible way. If difficulties confront you, let us share 
them with you. 

Very truly yours 

Frank H. Wood 

List of Ornamental Stock in Experiment Station Nurseries 

Prepared by the Nezv York State College of Forestry, Syracuse 

trees Fraxinus americana — White ash 

Acer platanoides — Norway maple Fraxinus pennsylvanica — Green ash 

Acer saccharum — Sugar maple Morns alba — White mulberry 

Be tula alba pendula — White Platanus americana — American plane 

birch tree 

Crataegus oxyacantha — English haw- Platanus orientalis — Oriental plane 

thorn tree 



1 See subjoined list. 



74 



THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 



Prunus padus — European bird Kerria japonica — Globe flower 

cherry 
Prunus triloba — Flowering almond 
Pyrus angustifolia 
Quercus coccinea — ■ Scarlet oak 
Quercus rubra — Red oak 
Picea excelsa — Norway spruce 
Pinus strobus — White pine 
Pinus sylvestris — Scotch pine 



Lonicera tartarica — Honeysuckle 

bush 
Rhamnus catharticus — Buckthorn 
Rosa rugosa alba — White Japanese 

rose 
Rosa rugosa rubra — Red Japanese 

rose 
Spirea bumalda var. Anthony Waterer 



Retinospora plumosa — Japanese cy- Symphoricarpus vulgaris — Coral 

press berry 

Thuja occidentalis siberica — Arbor Spirea van Houttei — Van Houtte's 



vitae or white cedar 
Tsuga canadensis — Hemlock 

VINES 

Parthenosiesus engelmanii 

Ampelopsis quinquefolia — Five- 
leaved ivy or Virginia creeper or 
woodbine 

Ampelopsis veitchii — Boston or Jap- 
anese ivy 

Celastrus scandens — Climbing bit- 
tersweet 

Evonymus radicans 

Lonicera halleana 

Wistaria (American purple) 

SHRUBS 

Aralia pentaphylla — Five-leaved 
aralia 

Berberis thunbergii — Japanese bar- 
berry 

Berberis vulgaris — Common barberry 

Cornus alba var. siberica — Siberian 
dogwood 

Deutzia lemoinei 

Diervilla rosea — Rose-colored wei- 
gela 

Forsythia intermedia — Golden bell 



spirea 

Symphoricarpus racemosus — Snow- 
berry 

Syringa vidgaris var. Marie LeGraye 
— Common lilac 

Viburnum dentatum — ■ Arrowwood 

HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS 

Peonies 

Festiva maxima 
Officinalis rubra 
Dutchess nemeur 

Phlox 

Wm Robinson 

Jean D' 'Arc 

Richard Wallace 

Selina 

Stokesia cynanea — Stoke's blue 
aster 

Boltonia asteroides 

Iris germanica — German iris 

Dicentra spectabilis — ■ Bleeding 
heart 

Digitalis purpurea alba — White 
foxglove 

Coreopsis lanceolata var. grandi- 
flora 

Chimps hollyhocks 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 75 

Prepared by Mr. E. A. Richardson 

Many have doubtless observed the extensive use which has been made 
of native shrubs on the attractive grounds surrounding the stations along 
the line of the Boston and Albany Railroad. Mr E. A. Richardson, land- 
scape engineer, of Newtonville, Mass., to whom credit is to be given for 
carrying out this idea, has kindly furnished the following list of native 
shrubs of which he has made extensive use. 

Some suggestive comments are included in connection with individual 
shrubs on the list, and an interesting and instructive extract from one of 
Mr Richardson's letters is also given. 

Shrubs preceded by 1 are those that are hardy and can with ordinary care be grown 
anywhere in our latitude. 

Shrubs preceded by 2 are not so hardy but with special care succeed in most soils in 
our latitude. 

Those preceded by 3 call for some special condition or treatment. 

I Mariana {Andromeda} Lyonia and 

L. ligustrina Stagger bush 

1 Acer spicatum Mountain maple 

1 Acer pennsylvanicum Striped maple 

(I have seen both of these do well in cold situations) 

I Alnus incana (In all soils) Alder 

1 Amelanchier canadense Shad bush 

(Rich deep soil, fairly well in poorer soils) 

2 Aralia spinosa Hercules club 

(Have not seen this in exposed, cold situations) 

1 Berber is vulgaris Common barberry 

(Does its best in deep soils, often in stony soils) 

2 Cercis canadensis Judas tree: redbud 

(Should not plant in very cold, exposed situations) 
2 Clethra alnifolia Sweet pepperbush 

(Have not seen this far away from sea shore) 
I Crataegus phaenopyrum (C. cordata) Washington thorn 
I Crataegus crus-galli Cockspur thorn 

(Both fairly good soils) 
I Cornus paniculata Grey cornel 

(In most soils and situations) 
I Cornus stolonifera Red osier 

(Does full as well in moist, not wet soils) 
I Cornus amommum (C. sericed) Silky cornel 

(In ordinary soils) 



76 ' THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

I Cornus florida Flowering dogwood 

(Especially well on edges of woods) 
I Cornus alternifolia Alternate leaved cornel 

(On edges of woods) 
I Corylus americana Hazelnut 

(On ordinary soils) 
I Dervilla lonicera {D. trifida) Bush honeysuckle 

(Fairly well on poor soils) 
i Leucothoe catesbaei 

(Needs good soil) 
I Rhododendron arborescens {Azalea) Smooth azalea 
1 Rhododendron viscosum {Azalea) Clammy-white swamp honeysuckle 

1 Rhododendron nudiflorum {Azalea) Pinxter flower 

2 Rhododendron calendidaceum{Azalea) Flame-colored azalea 

(Deep moist soils. All these will do better if bedded down in fall with leaves one 
foot deep and leaves left on the following season) 
i Lycium vulgare Matrimony vine 

(Will do fairly well in poor soils) 

1 ' Ligustrum vulgare Common privet 

(The best of privets to stand poor treatment) 
1 Myrica cerifera Bayberry, wax-myrtle 

(Does fairly well on poor soil) 

1 Myrica gale Sweet gale 

(Likes to be near the water) 
i Prunus pumila Dwarf cherry 

(Does well in rocky soils also in good soils) 

2 Prunus maritima Beach plum 

(At home near the sea; does well elsewhere) 
1 Rosa lucida Glossy rose 

Rosa setigera Prairie rose; Michigan rose 

(Do not know how far north it will do well) 
1 Rosa blanda 
1 Rosa Carolina Swamp rose 

(Roses need good soil in order to bloom well. Have seen them do fairly well in poorer 
soils) 

1 Rosa nitida Northeastern rose 

2 Physocarpus opulifolius {Spiraea) Ninebark 

1 Spirea tomentosa Hardback; steeplebush 

1 Spirea salicifolia Common meadowsweet 

(Will do fairly well in poor but better in good soils) 

2 Aruncus Sylvester {Spirea aruncus) Goats beard 

(Should hesitate about planting too far north) 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 



77 



i Sorbus americana 

(Fairly good soil) 
I Sambucus canadensis 

1 Sambucus racemosa (S. pubens) 

(Moist soil for its best) 

2 Rhus copallina 
I Rhus canadensis (R. aromatica) 



American mountain ash 

Common elderberry 
Red-berried elder 



Dwarf sumac 

Fragrant sumac (Arnold Arboretum 
form) 
(Does well in stony loam; not so well in light sandy soil) 



I Rhus glabra 

I Rhus typhi fia 

(Likes good soil) 

Pyrus arbutifolia 

i Hamamelis virginica 

(Does its best in moist places) 
I Vaccinium corymbosum 

(Does better in moist soils) 
i Vaccinium pennsylvanicum 
I Viburnum acerifolium 



Smooth sumac 
Staghorn sumac 

Chokeberry 
Witchhazel 

High or swamp bush blueberry 

Dwarf blueberry 

Maple-leaved viburnum or dock- 
mackie 



(Does better on edges of woods) 
I Viburnum dentatum Arrowwood 

(Full as well in moist soil) 
I Viburnum alni folium ( V. lantanoides) Hobble-bush 

(? how far north) 
I Viburnum lentago Sheepberry 

(Rich, deep soils) 
I Viburnum cassinoides Withe-rod 

(Seen it in all soils, better in deep, rich sods) 
I Vibernum prunifolium Black haw 

i Vibernum opulus Cranberry-tree 

(Better in rich, deep, cool sod, facing north) 
3 Kalmia latifolia Mountain laurel — calico bush 

(Deep, rich moist soil for the best, as a rule does not like a lime soil) 
i Kalmia augustifolia Sheep laurel 

(Fairly well in dry pastures) 
I Symphoricarpus racemosus Snowberry 

(Fair soil) 
I Symphoricarpus vulgaris Indian currant, coral berry 

(Will exist in poor soils, but makes a fine showing in rich soils) 
3 Zanthorhiza apiifolia Shrub yellow-root 



78 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Vines 

3 Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Bearberry 

(Does well in sandy loam, also in rocky loam) 
3 Aristolochia sipho Dutchman's pipe 

(Likes rich, deep, moist soil, does well facing north) 
i Celastrus scandens Bittersweet 

(Fairly well in poor soil, fruits fully as well as it does in richer soils) 
3 Tecoma radicans Trumpet flower 

(This is sometimes tender here; rich sandy loams) 
I Psedera quinquefolia (Ampelopsis) Common woodbine 

(Almost any soil) 
3 Clematis virginiana Common Virgin's bower 

(Full as well in moist, rich soils) 



" I have seen most of the shrubs in all kinds of situations and in fairly cold places, say as low as 20 degrees 
below zero, but most of our plantings are in places where the mercury does not go below 10 degrees below and 
does not stay there long. 

" Many plants do well as far north as Montreal, Canada, that do not do well farther south because they do 
not have the snow mantle that they get in Canada. Deep, well-enriched soils often make plants endure hard 
winters where they otherwise would come through enfeebled. In my markings I have simply given what I have 
seen. Temperatures from 20 below and lower, I have not had much experience with." 



SANITATION OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 

The following letter and accompanying questionnaire, sent to super- 
intendents of schools throughout the State in January 1916, are self- 
explanatory: 

To Superintendents of Schools: 

There is no subject with which we have to deal that is of more vital moment or that 
presents at once greater possibilities and greater difficulties than school sanitation or school 
hygiene. We are all deeply interested and concerned in it and in all phases of it. Much 
that is excellent in character is being constantly said and written about it, and much that 
is not so praiseworthy. But theory, however good and sound in itself, needs to be inter- 
preted and expressed in terms of much actual experience and under the testing processes 
of varied everyday practice. 

In the treatment of certain topics in sanitation in a school building publication that 
is about to be issued, I need the results of the experience of many under varying condi- 
tions, and I turn to the body of men peculiarly equipped to supply this information, with 
the request that you kindly answer the accompanying set of questions, in order that the 
information gained therefrom may be used in an entirely impersonal way for the benefit 
of our schools and as a practical contribution for the guidance of those who are charged 
with the responsibility of decision in the problems involved. 

That this undertaking may prove of maximum value, let me express the hope that 
every superintendent will make as prompt and complete a return as possible. I am 
encouraged to present this blank to you in the belief that you will deem it a pleasure as 
well as a duty to give invaluable information on such important administrative problems, 
unobtainable through other sources. 

Very truly yours 

Frank. H. Wood 
School Buildings and Grounds — Special Features 
1 Heat and Ventilation 
a What is the total number of school buildings under your jurisdiction? 
b What is the total number in which there is a mechanical system of ventilation? 
c Do you operate your fans during the entire year when school is in session? 
If not, at what approximate date do you begin to do so? 
Cease to do so? 
d State any reasons that you may have for or against the use of mechanical ventila- 
tion in warm weather, based upon your experience. 

e If you have two buildings of similar cubage and construction, one with a gravity 
system, the other with a mechanical, compare their yearly cost of maintenance and their 
effectiveness as measured by results. 

/ Do you test your buildings for humidity? 

If so, what standard do you regard as desirable? 
What percentage limits are you able to maintain? 

79 



So THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

g In how many of your buildings do you use thermostat regulation? 
k What are your rules governing the use of a thermometer as to 

1 Temperature to be maintained? 

2 Distance in feet above floor level? 

3 Location in room? 

i Add any essential information or helpful suggestions that you may have in mind 
regarding heating and ventilating systems. 

2 Vacuum Cleaning 
a To what extent, if any, have you made use of vacuum cleaning? 
b Has it proved more satisfactory than the ordinary methods? 

If so, in what respects? 
c State any disadvantages that you may have experienced in its use. 
d Describe the type of machine and installation used by you. 

e Add any information or advice that would be likely to prove serviceable to those 
without experience with vacuum cleaners. 

j Dust Layers 
a Do you use floor oil? 

If so, with what do you have it applied? 
How often ? 

State what rule, if any, governs the quantity to be used. 
b State any additional precautionary measures in the use of floor oil that you have 
found it necessary to adopt. 

c Do you find any reasonable ground for complaint resulting from the use of floor 
oil after your method ? 

d What dust-laying agencies have you used and with what results? 

4 Janitor Service 
a What is the minimum salary? 

What is the maximum salary? 
b What qualifications are prescribed? 

c What measures are adopted to direct, supervise and instruct janitors in the per- 
formance- of their duties? 

d If a definite set of rules or directions is issued to janitors, please inclose a copy. 
e Is your janitor service satisfactory? 

If not, state in what directions there are special difficulties. 

5 School Grounds 
a What is the average size of your sites? 

How many have playgrounds connected with them? 
How many have playground equipment? 
b How many of your sites have school gardens? 

c How many have been laid out and beautified in accordance with the plan of a 
landscape artist or engineer? 



Superintendent of Schools 

A summarization of replies follows: 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 



2o,3 ° 


: 


fO f 




No. of 

more 
satis- 
factory 




No. of 

buildings 

using 

cleaning 
• 


2 S 




No. of 
places 
using 
vacuum 
cleaning 


" 


No. of 
buildings 

with 
thermo- 
static 
regula- 
tion 


£ " ™ 


No. of 

buildings 

tested 

for 
humidity 




|l J 


g 


,§1*1 






Gravity 

system 

less 

pensive 








Gravity 
system 

pensive 






(2 3 P.* 




tS 3 £ >> 


S "S 


Total 

using 
mech. 
ventila- 
tion 


■4- M- 


Total 

no. 

buildings 


i 008 
378 

1 66 




c 


In cities of the third class 

In villages of 5000 or more 











32 <g 



<i 



